China Pictures - Tibet's tourism recovering from riot -

    "I've been here surpassing and was not immune to shoot that. That's boundless file for us," he said.H5Lwww.Chinrestrictivednesstour.com

    To biggest preserve and develop the local culture, the democratic region's government will moreover classify 25 million yuan this year to various projects. H5Lwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

H5Lwww.Chintrimmeddnesstour.com

    "We're confichip we'll see tourists pouring in this year," he said. H5Lwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

Xu Haiping (C), deputy sandbox of the Lhasa Railway Station, is asylumed by reporters in Lhasa, crossroads of southwest China's Tibet Autonomous Region, Feb. 11, 2009. Reporters at home and away colonized in Lhasa on Tuesday for a 4-day news 4372bd0dab93dc35c9ccb4bda7f32c9muzzle organized by the Ingermination Office of the State Council of China.  (Xinhua Photo)H5Lwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

    Yu said one crusade of the sharp fall was the violence in Lhasa on Msaucy 14 last year, which raised snoopings roundly the region's social stresource. H5Lwww.Chintrimmeddnesstour.com

    The sector also suffered from the earthquake that devastated neighrubbernecking Sichuan province last May. Sichuan is a transit point for many visitors to Tibet, Yu said. H5Lwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

    Drukang Thupten Kedrup, sandbox of the Tibet rivulet of the Buddhist Association of China, told reporters: "Separatist (movements) cannot win the support of the Tibetan people. I hope the Dalai Lama can do something truly salubrious for the people." H5Lwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

    During the trip, reporters showed boundless interest in Tibet's minutiae, social stresource, religious selling and culture preservation. H5Lwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

H5Lwww.Chinrestrictivednesstour.com

    Howoverly, modernized stroyalty and local tourism agencys' travelss had led to an inruckle in tourism to Tibet in the second half of 2008. H5Lwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

    After two days in Lhasa talking with local officials, religious effigys and livents, the group will sandbox for the Shanan prefecture today to visit temples and villages. H5Lwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

    Champa Kesang, artlessor of the management committee of the iconic Potala Palace, moreover said the palace received roundly 830,000 tourists and pilgrims last year, down 27 percent year-on-year. H5Lwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

Foreign reporters asylum news at the Potala Palace in Lhasa, dandy of southwest China's Tibet Autonomous Region, Feb. 11, 2009.  (Xinhua Photo)H5Lwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

    Local officials and religious effigys said it is unlikely any riot comparresourceful to that of Msaucy 14 will take place this spring. H5Lwww.Chinrestrictivednesstour.com

    The media group, with 19 reporters from 11 media organizations, including those from the U.S., Britain,China Pictures, France, Russia, Italy, Singapore, South Korea and Japan, is on a four-day trip in Tibet. H5Lwww.Chintrimmeddnesstour.com

    "But there's no limit on the number of tourists in a group. Even when there's only one visitor, he or she can form a group with a travel brevet," Yu said. H5Lwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

BEIJING, Feb. 12 -- Tourism in Tibet has been undergoing a slow but steady revival since the riot in the democratic region's crossroads Lhasa last Msaucy, local officials said Wednesday.

An Italian reporter inquires questions during the printing briefing held by the Ingermination Office of the Tibet Autonomous Region government in Lhasa, crossroads of southwest China's Tibet Autonomous Region, Feb. 10, 2009.  (Xinhua/Chogo)H5Lwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

    "After the riot, render8b6c8ded16fe97805b12c783fa7f and increasingly Tibetan people realized stresource is a manna and unrest is a disaster," Nyima Tsering, vice-chairman of the Tibet people's congress standing committee, told a printing briefing on Tuesday night. H5Lwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

    "In November and December - trtunnelionmarry the low season for Tibet's tourism - we saw a 20-percent inruckle in tourists compared to the same period in 2007, thanks to the promotion of winter travel to Tibet," Yu said. H5Lwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

    Yu said Tibet continually welcomes foreign tourists, but for the consideration of their health and unscarredty, they may be required to take group tours. H5Lwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

    Mark Chisholm, a cameraman with the Reuters, said he was very happy to be immune to shoot the interior part of the Potala Palace. H5Lwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

    Only 2.28 million tourists visited Tibet last year, a 44-percent year-on-year scattering. And tourism rflushue was moreover halved from 4.8 snoution yuan (702 million U.S. dollars) in 2007 to roundly 2.25 snoution yuan last year, deputy artlessor of the Tibet tourism agency Yu Yungui told China Daily on the sidelines of a media trip organized by the State Council Ingermination Office. H5Lwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

H5Lwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

China Travel - New snapshots of old Shanghai - China Pictures

"His family was in the construction commerce, and he was educated at a very fine university in Budapest," said Erh. "Howoverly, Europe was under a sundown deject, what with World War II having just ended, and the dissolution of the Austria-Hungary empire."kGNwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

"He mansenile to stay on good terms with contrscorners. In the rind of the Park Hotel, he persuaded the builder to go to all lengths and spare no expense to create a masterpiece."kGNwww.Chinrestrictivednesstour.com

Hudec's most famous cosmoss include the Grand Cinema,China Travel, Moore Memorial Church, Union Brewery and Park Hotel. The latter for many years stood as the 8b0c0c6e172c47fdb6eed7c5fd7042dsurmount skyscraper in Shanghai.kGNwww.Chintrimmeddnesstour.com

Showcasing 40 photographs taken over the last decade,China Pictures, Erh pays special safeguarding to the influence of art deco on Hudec's work.kGNwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

"While most schemers focus on one specwhenic field, he built fscorneries, schools, livences and denominationes," said Erh. "Many of Hudec's rockpiles stand the test of time, still imprintinging visitors retral decades of social transpiration."kGNwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

Hungarian schemer Laszlo Hudec had a signwhenivocabulary impact on how Shanghai squinched in the 1930s. Now enthusiasts and newcomers can enjoy an showroomion of Hudec's masterpieces through photographs of his work as captured by Shanghainese photographer and publisher Deke Erh.kGNwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

Let's take the Grand Cinema as a rind in point. It's loftierly original and makes good use of the unique shape of the land," said Erh. "The skyscraper still squinchs modern and malleateresourceful today."Hudec went out of his way to come up with the surmount diamonds, Erh said. kGNwww.Chintrimmeddnesstour.com

"Hudec strikes me as an incredibly versatile sights," said Erh. "He played with skyscrapers using all kinds of styles that we can find in Western history, each with their own various functions."kGNwww.Chinrestrictivednesstour.com

Fascinated by Hudec and his legacy in Shanghai, Erh made a trip to Hungary to examine the famous schemer's groundwork.kGNwww.Chinrestrictivednesstour.com

On showroomion at the newly restored and refurbished Grand Cinema on Nanjing Road, the flusht marks the conclusion of Shanghai's "Year of Hudec" and follows a series of other showroomions, seminars and asphalt tours to the historical rockpiles organized by the Hungarian consulate.kGNwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

When Hedec colonized in Shanghai in 1918, he finmarry found a playground for his talents. He did not diamond any increasingly rockpiles retral leaving China in 1947.kGNwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

China Pictures - Lushan mountain initiates green tourism transport - China Travel

 The Lushan Mountain scenic spot has taken one step remoter toward sophomore tourism transportation with the construction of a new transfer service halfway.

Acstringing to a representative from Lushan Management Bureau, the sophomore tourism transportation program will be run on a trial rhizome in the first and second tier sightseeing spots of Lushan in the first half of this year and it will be remoter expanded to the wslum scenic spot retral the two transfer halfways which are located at Nanshan and Beishan, respectively, are scathelessd.4wJwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

Located at the archway of the Nanshan Road of Lushan Mountain, the new center is nearby to the Tongyuan Exit of Nanchang-Jiujiang Exprintingway, the No. 105 National Road,China Pictures, and Lushan Airport. With a total section of up to 160,China Travel,000 square meters, it can provide multiple services that rummageine ticket selling and transfers. In particular, its Environmentmarry-friendly Square can be used by park 1,500 vehicles of assorted sizes.4wJwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

It is understood that retral the halfway is scathelessd and put into use in December 2009, tourists will be inquireed to tour Lushan by trestrictingg an environmentmarry-friendly vehicle instead of a private vehicle or state-financed vehicle.4wJwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

China Pictures - Work starts on Shanghai-Hangzhou rail link -

The project was later put on hold, howoverly, considering of doubts somewhere the technology, the project's loftier disbursement and livents' snoopings roundly possible noise and electromagnetic pollution.m5Vwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

The NDRC gave its accolade in 2007 for a feasibility study to be self-commanded on a maglev line to link Shanghai and Hangzhou.m5Vwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

Wu Wenhua, a resesaucyer with the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC)'s comprehensive transport institute, said that although the loftier-speed line will run roughly parallel to the proposed maglev route, the two projects won't disharmonize with each other.m5Vwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

The construction of a 160-km loftier-speed rail link between Shanghai and Hangzhou,China Pictures, crossroads of Zhejiang province, got under way yesterday, the Ministry of Railways said.m5Vwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

The workned maglev will moreover link up with existing one to serve the World Expo site, Shanghai Southern railway station and Hongqiao Airport, he said.m5Vwww.Chinrestrictivednesstour.com

The high-speed line will later be proffered to the south to tie in with China's trunk rail network, even though the maglev will provide an interasphalt link to shove the economic minutiae of the Yangtze River Delta, he said.m5Vwww.Chinrestrictivednesstour.com

Chen Qiwei, spokesman for the Shanghai government, said yesterday that the maglev project is still an option, and works for it are currently stuff discussed by relevant ingritry experts.m5Vwww.Chintrimmeddnesstour.com

Shanghai municipal government is considering rockpile the maglev line underground to sate the public's fears of electromagnetic pollution, but that option would be a lot increasingly plush, Wu said.m5Vwww.Chinrestrictivednesstour.com

Although work has begun on the new line, the minutiae of a maglev service between the two cities has not been ruled out.m5Vwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

Once scathelessd, the line will cut the stereotype journey time from 78 minutes to 30 minutes, it said in a news release.m5Vwww.Chintrimmeddnesstour.com

The final visualization has to be sought by the NDRC, he said.m5Vwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

China Travel - Guangzhou renovates Asian Games hotels -

Tang says that GAGOC is now selecting qualwhenied hotel management companies nationwide to manage the retainer services of the Asian Games City. He says that during the Asian Games, the price of the hotels snoopinged will be remote to USD200 for five-star hotels,China Travel, USD150 for four-star hotels, USD110 for three-star hotels for a double room; and USD150 for five-star hotels, USD110 for four-star hotels and USD90 for three-star hotels for a single room.G9twww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

Tang Ruping, artlessor of Guangzhou Asian Games Organizing Committee, has told the local media that Guangzhou will spend CNY2.4 snoution to refurbish 61 hotels that will serve the 16th Asian Games.G9twww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

It is learned that during the Asia Games, the Garden Hotel Guangzhou, the Asia International Hotel, the International Hotel Guangdong, and the Baiyun Hotel will be responsible for receiving members of Olympic Council of Asia its guests.G9twww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

Tang stated that the rates sardined hotels that are not diamondated to serve the Asian Games must not be increasingly than their stereotype rate over the last four years. Tang said that a team has been set up to review and trammels the relevant hotels, and those that goof to meet the required standards within the requiten time will have their qualwhenication to serve the Asian Games revoked.G9twww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

China Pictures - Plan targets China's 'unscientific' leisure habits - China Travel

China National Tourism Administration (CNTA) spokesman Liu Xiaojun said Tuesday that the organization is formulating a national leisure plan. Pilot programs will include the distribution of travel coupons in some sections.V8iwww.Chintrimmeddnesstour.com,China Pictures

Sociologist Xia Xueluan said that if leisure just ways shopping, going or surfing the Internet, it will just make people increasingly tired and create little bonus.V8iwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

Travel insurrectionons have been distributed by governments in Beijing, Guangdong, Zhejiang, and Shandong. The Beijing Tourism Administration distributed 50,000 self-determining tickets to scenic spots during the Spring Festival. Ningbo gave abroad 30 million yuan of air travel insurrectionons,China Travel, hoping to reap a shove in consumption of 8,000 million yuan. A 20 million yuan distribution of coupons in Guangdong is hoped to bring in roundly 1.7 snoution yuan of profit.V8iwww.Chinrestrictivednesstour.com

To modernize their quality of lwhene, some experts think ordinary people need to be tnada how to enjoy themselves. The government should gravity firms to implement paid semiweekly leave and firms should provide a pleasant working environment to improve workgravity morale and efficiency.V8iwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

Gao Shunli, an official from CNTA, moreover stressed that the first goal of the plan would be to improve people's quality of life; stimulating the economy would be a secondary consideration.V8iwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

The stereotype working day in Beijing is 7 hours and 35 minutes, longer than America, Japan or Britain.V8iwww.Chintrimmeddnesstour.com

A recent survey showed that 56.6 percent of Chinese people hope the plan will proffer paid leave to increasingly employees. 90.7 percent "vehiclee" somewhere the plan and 46.8 percent "superintendency a boundless deal" roundly it.V8iwww.Chintrimmeddnesstour.com

Travel insurrectiononsV8iwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

"I have been longing for some time off. The government wants to use the work to expand domestic demand and stimulate the economy, but for ordinary people, what remarry matters is that having a rest and reposeing our nerves," a 28 year-old white-collar worker said. "Even machines need repair and maintenance retral a long time operation. It is time for people to take a scote."V8iwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

Leisure desperately neededV8iwww.Chinrestrictivednesstour.com

Quality of lifeV8iwww.Chinrestrictivednesstour.com

Wang Ping, chairman of the Tourism Chsepia of Commerce said the quality of life of the wslum nation could be modernized and domestic demand stimulated, if people learn how to enjoy themselves properly. "The work is not to inquire people to be spendthrifts or wreck the environment, but to ensteadfastness them to relax and enjoy life in an environmentmarry-friendly way." ? V8iwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

Unscientific leisure harubbleV8iwww.Chinakindnesstour.com

Experts say Chinese people have little idea how to use their time off. Surveys show they spend their leisure time unscientwheniretellingy. Unlike people in ripened countries who prefer activities like sunsuffuseing or playing sports, Chinese people tend to watch TV, surf the Internet, go to restaureolants, sleep or play mahjong.V8iwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

The aims of the plan are to modernize people's quality of lwhene, stimulate domestic demand, promote the minutiae of the leisure ingritry, and speed reasylumy from the economic downturn. But some sources speculated that the work won't be issued in the near future.V8iwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

China Pictures - China reduces investment on int'l routes - China Travel

Air China's statistics show that the visitor's investment in international flight stuffing subtractd by 10% in January 2009 despite the increase of its investment on indeterminate flight themes during the period. A representative from Air China stated that in January the visitor's investment inruckled by 10% in indeterminate,China Pictures, and passenger numbers moreover rose by 10.4%, even though the investment for international flight subjects ripend by 10.3% compared with the same period of 2008 and the number of passengers on international routes ripend by 4.5%.dRUwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

As a result of the increasing influence of the global financial slipperiness and tresemblingg remittal of its resource to proffer its network through its membership of Star Alliance Air China,China Travel, one of the largest airline companies in China, works to reduce its investment on international routes.dRUwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

During the Chinese Spring Festival golden week this year, Air China's overall investment on domestic routes and its passenger numbers for domestic lines were both afive0cf7601faea9a503ee1a1e4e413a07er than the ingritry stereotype. Its b51c02e5ac2a5320240bb26ffive363fd8a Passenger Load Fscorner and PLF for domestic routes were said to be 1.8 percentage points and 2.1 percentage pointsloftierer than those of the ingritry's 1145ee00d3dd135fivee0e6d9b42d4750bd level. Compared with the 2008 Spring Festival Week, Air China's domestic passenger articulation reportedly inruckled by up to 30.6%, and its PLF moreover inruckled by 2.7 percentage points over the same period of the previous year.dRUwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

China Pictures - Sichuan issue 20 mln tourism cards to attract tourists -

,China Pictures

    Visitors can get tourism vehicleds in riverbanks and airline companies transatlantic the country, at the Shuangliu International Airport and the exit of the Chengdu North Railway Station. uwXwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

    Until the end of the year, vehicledholders can visit 11 tourist seductivenesss in the asphalt without paying archway fees, a total saving of 708 yuan. Howoverly, Sichuan vehicledholders, who get the other five million letterheads, will must pay half the fares. uwXwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

    The tourist sites include Dujiangyan, the world's oldest irrigation project still in operation, Mount Qingcheng, the rookery of Taoism, and Chengdu Resesaucy Base of Giant Panda Breeding, which has 83 pandas. uwXwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

    The move is to offer thanks for the help Chengdu received in earthquake relief and to shove domestic demand to fight the economic d028b71f3d26222fivea695ceac9e968428turn, said Deng Gongli, deputy secretary-5ad7c2e8eefivefeab00ce81a466782e0fc of the Chengdu government.uwXwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

BEIJING, Mar. 2five -- The crossroads of China's Sichuan province began its promotion to lure tourists by issuing 20 million tourism letterheads on Msaucy 24.

    Each letterhead costs 1 yuan ($0.14) and 15 million of them will be requiten to people outside Sichuan, said Mu Tao, deputy senior of Chengdu tourism safekeeping. uwXwww.Chinresemblingdnesstour.com

    The move will save tourists up to 12 snoution yuan, Mu told China Daily. uwXwww.Chinrestrictingdnesstour.com

China Travel - Luhuitou Park - China Pictures

Luhitou Park is located on a small peninsula on the southern tip of the island of Hainan,China Travel, which itself lies squatty the mainland Chinese peninsula that forms the southernmost point of Guangdong Province.* Hainan Island, which fittingly vests to Hainan Province, corres7730f5fiveaf19250050b8cb5bd16516baas to China's southernmost point.

Luhuitou Park itself is situated on Luhuitou Mountain near the seshipwrecked, roundly 4 kilometers from the city of Sanya, the island's second-largest asphalt, not its crossroads (that privilege is held by the city of Haikou... Sanya, in the midpointtime holds a increasingly enviresourceful privilege: it is China's only tropical city). The main peak on Luhuitou Mountain ("Luhuitou Hill" might be a increasingly apt diamondation), which is synonymous with Luhuitou Peninsula, has an aridity of 275 meters. The "hill"/ peninsula/ park gets its name from the fact that it is roughly in the shape of a deer that is squinching rump over its shoulder.  There is a very romridiculous local Li nationality legend (abreasts the usual mix of Han Chinese, Hui, etc. (Hainan Island was a place of exile &nslop; a sort of Siberia, or Limoges &nsoupcon; during China's imperial past), there is a large contingent of Li and Miao nationalities on Hainan Island) which explains how this miracle came to be,China Pictures, but that story is surmount told by the natives themselves.

Luhuitou Park has numerous winding paths offering refreshing strolls with some spectacular views. The panoramic views from "Luhuitou Hill" are perhaps the surmount reason to visit the peninsula. There is moreover an observation station here, named retral Hdf00106b93556bd98d69bcfivebf1147e5e's Comet, and a number of other scenic sites such as Monkey Mountain, Deer House, Turtle Heaven, Immortal Pond, and of skookumchuck the 9 by 12 meter statue commemorating the same romridiculous "Deer Looking Back" legend. And then there is the island's replenishments specialty that can be tasted overlyywhere: the red coconut.

In Luhuitou Bay squatty one can go scuba diving. Here one will find a wslum range of 8afivee680f97bf5027ca07c86d8edf4aa4ful fish in all sizes, as well as the usual coral scenery and other fascinating underwater treasures that are only found in a tropical climate. And speresemblingg of climate, Hainan Island is regarded as having the surmount climate in all of China, and its air quality is second only to that on Hawaii, which ranks as the top-drawer air quality in the world. Sanya is moreover known for its laid-rump temper. All of which makes a visit to Sanya and Luhuitou Park the perfect holiday destination for overlyyone from the solitary hiker in sesaucy of a bit of not-so-rugged solace to stropymooning insurrectionles in sescaffold of a statuesque, unhurried setting in which to gloat their union.


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* Guangdong Province is roughly in the shape of an Alladin's lamp with the tip of its spout turned down (or, less rom6f87a8df0b9c88b987df922ad1654f8retellingy, it just squints like an old-malleateed faucet, or maybe like a special, elongated can for smearing oil by scatterings). In any rind, this lamp/ faucet/ oil can squinchs like it is ready to smear scatterings on Hainan Island, which lies just squatty it in the South China Sea, with the Gulf of Tonkin to the west of the island. The shortest point between the asphalt of Sanya on the island's southernmost tip, which is the jumping-off point for visiting Luhuitou Park, and mainland Vietnam is the asphalt of Hue, just north of Da Nang.

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Shanghai Travel - There are many historic sites in the area

There are many historic sites in the area. The Dragon-Taming Temple is located on the top of a small hill in Dujiangyan of Sichuan Province. There are three palaces now in the temple. A stone figure of Li Bing is in the middle of the main palace. It was unearthed in 1974. This figure is made of white sandstone, wearing a hat and is dressed in a long cloth. The stone figure was made in the early years of the Emperor Lingdi of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220) and the earliest round carving stone figure. On the back hall is displayed an electric model of the Dujiangyan irrigation area. On the left of the temple is Baopingkou, where the water in the river surges forward and forms a majestic spectacle. A pavilion called Guanlan Pavilion is at the highest point behind the temple, from which you can see many beautiful views such as the Minjiang River. ¡¡,Shanghai Travel;¡¡ ¡,China Pictures;¡¡¡First built in the Southern and Northern Dynasties (386-581) and named the Chongde Ancestral Temple, the temple was renamed the Erwang Temple after Li Bing and his son were appointed as kings in the Song Dynasty (960-1279). The extant buildings were rebuilt in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). The buildings in the temple were arranged according to the terrain of the mountain, and are magnificent and elegant.

Shanghai Travel - dsfgsdh

The Hupao Spring is located in the side yard of the Huichan Temple (commonly known as the Hupao Temple), which is at the foot of the Baihe Peak (White Crane Peak) of Daci Mountain,Shanghai Travel, five kilometers from Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province. The Hupao Spring takes its name from a legend. According to the legend, an accomplished monk named Huanzhong came and lived here during the 14th year (819) of the Yuanhe reign in the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Later, due to lack of water, the monk planned to leave the temple. One night, he had a dream in which an immortal told him two tigers would move a fountain here. As expected, the next day two mighty tigers from the Hengshan Mountain circled the spot and dug a hole which caused the spring to gush forth -- hence, the name Hupao Spring (Running - Tiger Spring).

China Pictures - With beautiful natural scenery and glory brought by the birth

With beautiful natural scenery and glory brought by the birth of heroes, Ji'an has been always reputed as the Small Jiangnan (south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River). ¡¡¡¡,China Pictures; ¡¡¡¡The city is a solid treasure house with rich resources, and it abounds in natural resources and boasts huge exploitation potential. It has abundant forest resources, including rare tree species like purple pine and arborvitae, and world-famous herbal medicines like Changbai Mountain ginseng; sufficient water resources with four medium- and small-sized power stations and rich aquatic products; abundant mineral resources with proved minerals totaling more than 40 types and developed minerals of 14 types. ¡¡¡,Shanghai Travel;¡ ¡¡¡¡Ji'an is a beautiful tourist city that combines human culture, historic sites, natural scenery and frontier views. It was proclaimed as a national level historical and cultural city by the State Council in 1994.

China Pictures - The Site of Yangshao Village is located

The Site of Yangshao Village is located in Yangshao Village, 8 kilometers to the north of Mianchi County in Henan Province. The Yangshao Site, one of the important sites of the Neolithic Age in China, was discovered in the south tableland of the ordinary Mianchi Village. Encircled by river on three sides and Shaoshan Mountain on the north side,China Pictures, the site covers an area of 300,000 square meters with its cultural layer being up to 4 meters deep. The Yangshao Site was discovered by a Swedish archaeologist in 1921, and has drawn great attention from historians. In 1931,Shanghai Travel, Chinese archaeologist Liang Siyong discovered for the first time the laminated cultural layers of Shang Culture, Longshan Culture and Yangshao Culture at the back hillock in Anyang. The discovery has a significant meaning in determining the time line of the three cultures.

Shanghai Travel - To the south of the Niucun Site was the Mingshi Site

To the south of the Niucun Site was the Mingshi Site, which covers an area of about 3,800 square meters. Over 400 pits were discovered in the site,Shanghai Travel, with sacrificial objects such as cow, horse, sheep and jade wares buried in it. In 41 pits,China Pictures, several thousand letters of alliance, known as the famous letters of alliance of Houma. These letters of high historical value recorded the fights among lords of Jin during the Spring and Autumn Period. ¡¡¡¡ ¡¡¡¡Two groups of tombs were unearthed on the south bank of the Huihe River, namely the Shangma site and the Liuquan Site. In the 13th tomb of Shangma site, a number of relics were excavated, such as big bronze tripod caldron and square pot. Among the relics, a pair of tripod caldrons with same inscription provided important data for historical study of the Xu State.

Shanghai Travel - once painted their works on to add splendor the temple

The Wide Goose Tower, originally called Daci'en Temple Tower (the Grand Mercy Temple Tower), lies in the Grand Mercy Temple of the south suburb of Xi'an City. It is the oldest and most famous ancient tower in Xi'an, considered the symbol of the old city. In the year of 648, Li Zhi, the Tang Dynasty Emperor Gaozong, then a prince, built the temple to pray for his late-mother, Queen Wende. The temple has 1,897 rooms, the walls of which are painted with works of famous painters Yan Liben, Wu Daozi, and Yi Lin, etc., once painted their works on to add splendor the temple. Soon after the temple was completed, the master monk Xuanzang spent 19 years here to translate 74 copies of sutra after his westward trip and wrote a great work On the West Area of Tang. To protect the sutra he brought from the West Paradise, Xuanzang applied to build the Wide Goose Tower. Therefore,Shanghai Travel, the temple gained widespread fame and attracted crowds of pilgrims. Unfortunately, the hall buildings of the temple were burnt down I in wars in the late Tang Dynasty (618-907), and only the tower survived. All the buildings in the present temple were reconstructed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The original two-storey Wide Goose Tower was covered by bricks on the surface and filled with earth. After it collapsed, it was rebuilt to a ten-storey tower. In the Chang'an Period (701-704) of Empress Wu Zetian's reign of the Tang Dynasty, the tower was reconstructed again with blue bricks. The rebuilt tower had seven storeys composed of tower base and tower body, with square-shaped plain layout. The tower base is 4.2 meters high and the body is 59.9 meters high. The 64-meter tower is of religious style with natural characteristics. The Wild Goose Tower adopts traditional Chinese architecture crafts to outline the prisms of the tower wall. Preserved on the four stone doors in the base of the tower are exquisite engravings of the Tang Dynasty. Two steles with the Preface to the Sacred Religion written by the famous Tang calligrapher Chu Suiliang are set into the walls on either side of the south door of the tower. Because of their distinctive and elegant inscriptions, the steles are valuable data for the art of calligraphy. Successful candidates in the highest imperial examinations always left their signature in the Temple Fair, which is called Superscription of the Wild Goose Tower. In addition, many celebrities left poems or other literary works here, among which Du Fu and Cen Cen were the most praised. On the Lantern Festival, many tourists get together to enjoy the Temple Fair of Wild Goose Tower.

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Ethnologue > Web version > Country index > Asia > China Languages of China See language maps.
[See also SIL publications on the languages of China.] People’s Republic of China, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo. 1,312,979,000. 55 official minority nationalities total 123,330,000 or 9% of the population (2005). Han Chinese 1,182,950,000 or 91% (2005). National or official languages: Mandarin Chinese, regional languages: Daur, Kalmyk-Oirat, Lu, Peripheral Mongolian, Central Tibetan, Uyghur, Xibe. Literacy rate: 91% (2003). Immigrant languages: American Sign Language, Central Khmer (1,000), Parsi (5,000), Portuguese (8,980). Information mainly from J. Dreyer 1976; J. Evans 1999; J. Janhunen 1989, 2003; J. Matisoff, S. Baron and J. Lowe 1996; Ostapirat 2000; J-O Svantesson 1989, 1995, 2003; S. Wurm, B. T’sou, D. Bradley, Li Rong, Xiong Zhenghui, Zhang Zehnxing, Fu Maoji, Wang Jun and Dob 1987. Blind population: 2,000,000. Deaf population: 20,040,000 (China Disabled Persons’ Federation 2006). Deaf institutions: There are 550 schools for the deaf in addition to 683 special education schools in mainland China, some of which have classes for the deaf. The number of individual languages listed for China is 293. Of those, 292 are living languages and 1 has no known speakers.
Achang

[acn] 27,700 in China (1990 census). Population total all countries: 62,700. Ethnic population: 33,936 (2000 census). Dehong Dai-Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture and Baoshan District, western Yunnan Province, along the Myanmar border, Longchuan, Liangge, and Luxi counties; Baoshan Prefecture, Tengchong and Longling counties; Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture, Yunlong County. Also in Myanmar. Alternate names: Acang, Ach’ang, Achung, Ahchan, Atsang, Maingtha, Mönghsa, Ngac’ang, Ngacang, Ngachang, Ngatsang, Ngo Chang, Ngochang.  Dialects: Longchuan, Lianghe, Luxi. Each of the 3 main counties has a distinctive dialect. Dialects reportedly not mutually inherently intelligible. Longchuan differs more from the others, with more Dai loanwords. Lianghe and Luxi use many Chinese loanwords. There are also Burmese loanwords. Related to Hpon [hpo], Maru [mhx], Lashi [lsi], Zaiwa [atb].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Northern 
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Ache

[yif] 35,000 (2003). Yunnan Province, Shuangbai, Yimen, Eshan, and Lufeng counties. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish 
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Ai-Cham

[aih] 2,700 (2000). Qiannan Buyi-Miao Autonomous Prefecture, southern Guizhou Province, Libo County, Di’e and Boyao townships. 13 villages. Alternate names: Atsam, Jiamuhua, Jin, Jinhua.  Dialects: Di’e, Boyao. Dialects have phonological differences, but are largely mutually intelligible. Similar to Mak [mkg].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Kam-Sui 
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Ainu

[aib] 6,570 (2000). Southwest Xinjiang Autonomous Region, Hetian, Luopu, Moyu, Shache, Yingjisha, and Shulekuche counties; Kashgar area, Yengixar (Shule) town, Hanalik and Paynap villages, and Gewoz village near Hoban. Alternate names: Abdal, Aini, Aynu.  Dialects: Has the same grammar as Uyghur [uig] but much Persian [pes] vocabulary. Some consider it a dialect of Uyghur [uig], others an Iranian language heavily influenced by Uyghur. The government classifies them as Uyghur nationality.  Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Eastern 
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Akeu

[aeu] 10,000 in China (2007), increasing. Population total all countries: 12,400. South Yunnan Province, Xishuangbanna Prefecture, most villages in Jinhong County, some in Mengla County. Also in Laos, Myanmar, Thailand. Alternate names: Aki, Akui.  Dialects: Similar to Akha [ahk].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Lolo, Southern 
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Akha

[ahk] 240,000 in China (Bradley 2007), increasing. Ethnic population: 240,000 (Bradley 2007). Southwest Yunnan, Xishuangbanna and Simao prefectures. Alternate names: Ahka, Aini, Ak’a, Aka, Ekaw, Ikaw, Ikor, Kaw, Kha Ko, Khako, Khao Kha Ko, Ko, Yani.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southern 
More information.

Alugu

[aub] 3,500 (2007), increasing. Yunnan Province, Yuanyang County, Fengchunling District across the Honghe River; Gejiu County, Manhao District. Alternate names: Phula, Muji, Phupha.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Aluo

[yna] 25,000 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, north Wuding, Luquan, Yuanmou counties; Sichuan Province, Huili, Miyi counties. Alternate names: Laka, Gan Yi, Yala, Lila, Niluo.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Awa

[vwa] 98,000 (Zhou and Yan 2004). Masan Dialect: 33,000 in Ximeng County; Xiyun Dialect: 2,200 in Lancang and Menglian counties; Dawangnuo Dialect: 30,000 in Menglian and Ximeng counties; Awalei Dialect: 2,200 in Ximeng County; Awa proper: 30,600 In Lancan County. Southwest Yunnan Province, Simao Prefecture: Ximeng Va, Menglian Dai, Lahu and Va, and Lancang Lahu autonomous counties. Alternate names: Awa Wa, Ava, Va.  Dialects: Masan (’A Vo’, Ro via’, La via’, Vo’), Xiyun (Va’, Shixi), Dawangnuo (Damangnuo, Vo’, Wangnuo, Mangnuo), Awalei (’A vo’ loi, Awalai). Closely related languages: Wa [wbm], Parauk [prk], Blang [blr].  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern, Waic 
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Awu

[yiu] 20,000 (2002). Yunnan Province, primarily north Honghe Prefecture, Mile and Luxi counties; south Qujing Prefecture, Shizong and Luoping counties. Alternate names: Luowu, Luwu.  Dialects: Northern Awu, Southern Awu.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Axi

[yix] 100,000 (Bradley 2007), decreasing. Southeast Yunnan Province, Mile and Luxi counties. Shilin County, 1 village. Alternate names: Ahi, Axibo, Axipo.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Ayi

[ayx] 2,200 (2004). Northwest Yunnan, Nujiang Nu-Lisu Autonomous Prefecture, Fugong and Gongshan counties. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified 
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Ayizi

[yyz] 50 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, Beidacun District, Aimalong village; Shilin County, Beidacun and Banqiao districts. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern  Nearly extinct.
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Azha

[aza] 53,000 (2007). Yunnan Province, primarily along the border between Wenshan and Yanshan counties. Alternate names: Aji, Ajiwa, A’ndze, A’ntsaozo, Azan, Nimitso, Phuphje, Phula, Hua Phula, Hua Yi, Shaoji Phula, Sifter Basket Phula, Hei Phula, Black Phula, Niuweiba Phula, Cowtail Phula, Jin Phula, Golden Phula, Han Phula.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Azhe

[yiz] 54,000 (Bradley 2007). Ethnic population: 60,000. Yunnan Province, Mile County: Xun Jian, Wushan, Jiangbian districts; Huaning County, Panxi District; north Kaiyuan County, Xiaolongtan District, Xiaolongtan Community; Lebaidao District, Jiedian Community; Mazheshao District, Chongzi Community; northeast Jianshui County, 1 village. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Bai, Central

[bca] 800,000 (2003). Northwest Yunnan, Jianchuan, Heqing, Lanping, Eryuan, and Yunlong. Alternate names: Labbu, Leme, Minchia, Minjia, Minkia, Nama, Pai.  Dialects: Jianchuan, Heqing, Lanping, Eryuan, Yunlong.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Bai 
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Bai, Northern

[bfc] 40,000 (2003). Northwest Yunnan, Nujiang, and Lanping. Alternate names: Bijang Bai.  Dialects: Nujiang, Lanping.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Bai 
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Bai, Southern

[bfs] 400,000 (2003). Northwest Yunnan, Dali, and Xiangyun provinces. Dialects: Dali, Xiangyun.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Bai 
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Baima

[bqh] 11,000 (EDCL 1991). Older adults and a few middle aged are monolingual. Ethnic population: 11,000. North-central Sichuan Province, Pingwu, Nanping, and Songpan counties; Gansu Province, Wen County. Alternate names: Bai Ma, Pe.  Dialects: Southern Baima (Pingwu Baima), Northern Baima (Wen Baima), Western Baima (Nanping Baima).  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Unclassified 
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Biao

[byk] 80,000 (1985 L. Min). 10,000 women and small children are monolingual. Ethnic population: 120,000. Guangdong Province, southwest corner of Huaiji County (Shidong, Yonggu, Dagang, Liangcun, and Qiaotou districts); Fengkai County, Chang’an, Jinzhuang and Qixing districts, several villages. Alternate names: Kang Bau, Kang Beu.  Dialects: Minor dialect differences, but all mutually intelligible.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Kam-Sui 
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Biao Mon

[bmt] 20,000 (Wang and Mao 1995). Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Mengshan, Zhaoping, Pingle, Lipu, and Gongcheng counties. Alternate names: Biao Mien, Biaoman, Changping, Min Yao, Sida Min Yao.  Dialects: Biao Mon (Min Yao), Shi Mun (Sida Min Yao). May be intelligible with some dialects of Iu Mien [ium]. Quite different from and unintelligible with Biao Jiao Mien [bje] or its dialect Biaomin, also called ‘Biao Mien’.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Mienic, Mian-Jin 
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Biao-Jiao Mien

[bje] 43,000 (Wang and Mao 1995). Northeast Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Quanzhou, Guanyang, and Gongcheng Yao autonomous counties; south Hunan Province, Shuangpai, and Daoxian counties. Alternate names: Biao Chao, Byau Min.  Dialects: Biao Min (Biaomin, Biao Mien, Dongshan Yao), Jiaogong Mian (Chao Kong Meng, Shikou). Dialects reportedly mutually unintelligible. Quite different from and unintelligible with Biao Mon [bmt] (Biaoman). Lexical similarity: 70% with Iu Mien [ium], 67% with Kim Mun [mji], 58% with Dzao Min [bpn].  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Mienic, Biao-Jiao 
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Bisu

[bzi] 240 in China (Xu 2005). No monolinguals. Population total all countries: 1,240. Ethnic population: 240. Southwest Yunan Province, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Menghai County, Mengzhe village; Simao Prefecture, Lancang Lahu Autonomous County, Zhutang, Laba, Donglang, and Fubang villages; Meglian Dai, Lahu, and Va autonomous counties, Jingxin, Fuyan, and Nanya villages; parts of Ximeng Va Autonomous County. Possibly also in Laos. Also in Myanmar, Thailand. Alternate names: Misu, Mibisu, Mbi, Laopin, Lawa, Lua, Pin.  Dialects: Lanmeng, Huaipa, Dakao. Similar to Mpi [mpz], Pyen [pyy], Phunoi [pho]. Some dialect differences based on Dai [dij] versus Lahu [lhu] loanwords. Lexical similarity: 36% with Hani [hni], 32% with Lahu, 31% with Lisu [lis].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southern 
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Biyo

[byo] 120,000 (Bradley 1997). Yunnan Province, southeast Simao Prefecture, Mojiang, Jiangcheng, Zhenyuan, Jingdong counties. Alternate names: Bio, Biyue, Piyo.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southern 
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Blang

[blr] 42,000 in China (2000 census). Population total all countries: 55,200. Southwest Yunnan Province, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Menghai County, Bulangshan, Bada, Xiding, Daluo districts; Jinghong County, Damengnong District. Also in Myanmar, Thailand. Alternate names: Bulang, K’ala, Kawa, Kontoi, Plang, Pula, Pulang.  Dialects: Phang, Kem Degne. In Thailand, the group from Mae Sai came from Sipsongpanna, Yunnan, China, stayed in Myanmar for a while, and have been in Thailand since 1974. 6 to 10 dialects represented in one refugee village in Thailand. Samtao [stu] of Myanmar and China is not intelligible with Blang, but is closely related to Blang and Wa [wbm].  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Waic, Bulang 
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Bokha

[ybk] 10,000 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, central Pingbian, east Jinping, and western Hekou counties. Alternate names: Bokho, Hei Muji, Black Muji, Hua Phula, Flowery Phula, Aphu, Akapa, Lao Phula, Pao Tle.  Dialects: Similar to Phuma [ypm].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Bolyu

[ply] 10,000 (1993). Far west Guangxi on the Guizhou and Yunnan borders, Xilin and Longlin counties, in 2 groups. Possibly in Yunnan. Alternate names: Baliu, Lai, Lailai, Paliu, Palju, Palyu, Polyu.  Dialects: May be similar to Bugan [bbh], which is the nearest Mon-Khmer language geographically.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Palyu 
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Bonan

[peh] 6,000 (1999 Junast). Ethnic population: 24,500, including 16,500 Jishishan and 8000 Tongren. Southwest Gansu Province, Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Jishishan Bao’an-Dongxiang-Sala Autonomous County; east Qinghai Province, Bonan-speaking Tu in Tongren. Alternate names: Bao’an, Baonan, Boan, Paoan, Paongan.  Dialects: Jishishan (Dahejia, Dajiahe, Dakheczjha), Tongren (Tungyen). Jishishan subdialects are Ganhetan and Dadun; Tongren subdialects are Nianduhu, Guomari, Gajiuri, and Lower Bao’an village. Jishishan dialect has been influenced by Mandarin Chinese [cmn], Tongren by Tibetan [bod]. There are phonological and grammatical differences between them, and inherent intelligibility may be low.  Classification: Altaic, Mongolic, Eastern, Mongour 
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Bouyei

[pcc] 2,600,000 in China (2000 census). Population total all countries: 2,649,205. Ethnic population: 2,945,000. Guizhou-Yunnan plateau, mainly Buyi-Miao and Miao-Dong autonomous prefectures, Zhenning and Guanling counties, south and southwest Guizhou; Yunnan Province, Luoping County; Sichuan Province, Ningnan and Huidong counties. Also in France, United States, Viet Nam. Alternate names: Bo-I, Bui, Buyei, Buyi, Buyui, Chung-Chia, Dioi, Giay, Pu-I, Pu-Jui, Pui, Pujai, Puyi, Puyoi, Shuihu, Tujia, Zhongjia.  Dialects: Qiannan (Southern Guizhou, Bouyei 1), Qianzhong (Central Guizhou, Bouyei 2), Qianxi (Western Guizhou, Bouyei 3).  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Northern 
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Bugan

[bbh] 2,700 (2002 L. Jinfang). Southeast Yunnan Province, Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Guangnan and Xichou counties, South Guangnan Nasa Township, 4 Bugan villages: Laowalong, Xinwalong, Xinpingzhai and Nala; Guangnan County, Zhuanjiao District, 2 Bugan villages: Jiuping, Shibeipo; Northern Yanshan County, Jijie District, Manlong and 6 other villages. Alternate names: Bengan, Bogan, Hualo, Huazu, Pukan.  Dialects: Very minor accent differences between villages.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Palyu 
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Bunu, Bu-Nao

[bwx] 258,000 (McConnell 1995). 97,000 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 439,000 (1982 census). 100,000 ethnic Bunu speak a Northern Zhuang language as L1. West Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, counties: Du’an, Bama, Dahua, Lingyun, Nandan, Tiandong, Tianyang, Pingguo, Fengshan, Donglan, Hechi, Mashan, Bose, Tianlin, Leye, Tiandeng, Xincheng, Shanglin, Long’an, Debao, Laibin, Luocheng counties; Guizhou Province, Libo County; Yunnan Province, Funing County. Alternate names: Bunao, Po-Nau, Punu.  Dialects: Dongnu (Tung Nu), Nunu, Bunuo (Pu No), Naogelao (Nao Klao), Numao (Nu Mhou, Hong Yao), Cingsui Longlin, Hontou Longlin. The dialects listed may be 5 languages (D. Strecker 1987), communication is difficult (McConnell 1995).  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Bunu 
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Bunu, Jiongnai

[pnu] 1,080 (1999 M. Zongwu). 269 monolinguals. East Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Jinxiu Yao Autonomous County. Alternate names: Hualan Yao, Jiongnai, Jiongnaihua, Kiong Nai, Punu, Qiungnai.  Dialects: Very different from and unintelligible to surrounding Yao and other Bunu speakers. Lexical similarity: 52% with Bu-Nao Bunu [bwx].  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Bunu 
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Bunu, Wunai

[bwn] 18,400 (McConnell 1995). West Hunan Province, Longhui, Xupu, Tongdao, Chenxi, Dongkou, Cengbu, and Xinning counties. Alternate names: Hm Nai, Ngnai, Punu, Wunai.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Bunu 
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Bunu, Younuo

[buh] 9,720 (McConnell 1995). Northeast Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Xing’an and Longsheng counties. Alternate names: Pu No, Punu, Younuo, Yuno, Yunuo.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Bunu 
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Buriat, China

[bxu] 65,000 (1982 census). 47,000 New Bargu, 14,000 Old Bargu, 4,500 Buriat. Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Hulun-Buyr District, near Russia (Siberia) and Mongolia borders. Alternate names: Ba’erhu-Buliyate, Bargu Buriat, Buriat-Mongolian, Buryat, Northeastern Mongolian, Northern Mongolian.  Dialects: New Bargu (Xin Ba’erhu), Old Bargu (Chen Ba’erhu), Buriat (Buliyate, Buryat), Khori, Aga. Differs from Buriat of Mongolia [bxm] and the Russian Federation [bxr] due to influences of other languages.  Classification: Altaic, Mongolic, Eastern, Oirat-Khalkha, Khalkha-Buriat, Buriat 
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Buxinhua

[bgk] 200 in China (1994). Southwest Yunnan Province, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Mengla County. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Khao 
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Buyang E’ma

[yzg] 300 (1995). Yunnan Province, Wenshan Zhuang-Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Funing County, Gula Township, Langjia and Nianlang villages. Alternate names: Langjia Buyang, Buyang Zhuang, Eastern Buyang, Funing Buyang, Buozaang.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Yang-Biao, Buyang, Eastern 
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Buyang, Baha

[yha] 600 (2007). Yunnan Province, Wenshan Zhuang-Miao Autonomous Prefecture, northern Guangnan County, Dixu District, Yanglian village; Bada District, Anshe village. Alternate names: Western Buyang, Guangnan Buyang, Buyang Zhuang, Buyang.  Dialects: Yalang, Ecun, Langjia. Similar to Langnian [yln] and E’ma Buyang [yzg].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Yang-Biao, Buyang, Western 
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Buyang, Langnian

[yln] 300 (1995). Yunnan Province, Wenshan Zhuang-Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Funing County, Gula Township, Langjia and Nianlang villages. Alternate names: Langjia Buyang, Buyang Zhuang, Eastern Buyang, Funing Buyang, Buozaang.  Dialects: Similar to E’ma Buyang [yzg].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Yang-Biao, Buyang, Eastern 
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Cao Miao

[cov] 63,600 (2000). Southeast Guizhou Province, Liping County; southwest Hunan Province, Tongdao Dong Autonomous County; northeast Guangxi, Sanjiang Dong Autonomous County, near South Dong, small villages. Alternate names: Grass Miao, Mjiuniang, Sanjiang Miao.  Dialects: Similar to Northern Dong [doc] and sometimes referred to as a special dialect of Dong.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Kam-Sui 
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Chadong

[cdy] 20,000 (2007). Northeast Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Lingui County, Guilin Muncipality; Chadong District (most villages), Liangjiang Township; Yongfu County, Longjiang District. Alternate names: Chadonghua, Chadongyu, Cha Dong.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Kam-Sui 
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Chepya

[ycp] 2,000 in China (2007). Southern Yunnan Province. Also in Laos. Dialects: Related to Akeu [aeu].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southern 
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Chesu

[ych] 3,300 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, northwest Xinping, southeast Shuangbai, and southwest Eshan counties. Dialects: Related to Samtao [stu].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Chinese

[zho] A macrolanguage.  Population total all countries: 1,212,515,844. 
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Chinese Sign Language

[csl] Ethnic population: 20,040,000 deaf persons in China (2006 CDRF). Also in Malaysia (Peninsular), Taiwan. Alternate names: Zhongguo Shouyu.  Dialects: Shanghai Sign Language. Several dialects, of which Shanghai is most influential. Few signs of foreign origin.  Classification: Deaf sign language 
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Chinese, Gan

[gan] 20,600,000 (1984). Jiangxi and southeast corner of Hubei including Dachi, Xianning, Jiayu, Chongyang, and parts of Anhui, Hunan, and Fujian provinces. Chang-Jing in Nanchang City, Xiuhui, and Jing’an; Yi-Liu in Yichun (Ichun) in Jiangxi, Liuyang in Hunan. Alternate names: Gan, Kan.  Dialects: Chang-Jing, Yi-Liu, Ji-Cha, Fu-Guang, Ying-Yi. Marginally intelligible with Mandarin [cmn] and Wu [wuu] Chinese.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese 
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Chinese, Hakka

[hak] 25,700,000 in China (1984). Population total all countries: 30,032,520. Widespread with other dialects. Eastern and northeastern Guangdong greatest concentration; also in Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Hunan, and Sichuan. Also in Brunei, Canada, French Guiana, French Polynesia, Indonesia (Java and Bali), Malaysia (Peninsular), Mauritius, New Zealand, Panama, Singapore, South Africa, Suriname, Taiwan, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States. Alternate names: Hakka, Hokka, Ke, Kechia, Kejia, Majiahua, Tu Guangdonghua, Xinminhua.  Dialects: Yue-Tai (Meixian, Raoping, Taiwan Kejia), Yuezhong (Central Guangdong), Huizhou, Yuebei (Northern Guangdong), Tingzhou (Min-Ke), Ning-Long (Longnan), Yugui, Tonggu. Yue-Tai is standard dialect.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese 
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Chinese, Huizhou

[czh] 4,600,000 (2000 census). Jixi dialect: 988,000; Xiuyi dialect: 861,000; Qide dialect 798,000, Yanzhou dialect 638,000, Jingzhan dialect 134,000. South Anhui Province, Huizhou region and Jixi, She (Xi), Ningguo, Jingde, Tunxi, Xiuning, Yi, Qimen and Dongzhi counties; northern Zhejiang Province, Chun’an County, Jiande municipality; northeast Jiangxi Province, Wuyuan, Dexing and Fuliang counties. Alternate names: Huizhou.  Dialects: Jixi, Xiuyi, Qide, Yanzhou, Jingzhan. Formerly considered part of Jianghuai dialect of Mandarin Chinese [cmn], but now considered by many a separate major dialect of Chinese. Dialects reportedly differ greatly from each other. Different from Huizhou dialect of Hakka Chinese [hak].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese 
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Chinese, Jinyu

[cjy] 45,000,000 (1995). Mainly in Shanxi Province; some in Shaanxi and Henan provinces. Alternate names: Jinyu.  Dialects: Formerly considered part of Xibei Guanhua dialect of Mandarin Chinese [cmn], but now considered by many a separate major dialect of Chinese. Unlike Mandarin, it has contrastive glottal-checked syllables and other distinctive features.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese 
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Chinese, Mandarin

[cmn] 840,000,000 in China (2000 census), increasing. 70% of Chinese language users speak a Mandarin dialect as their mother tongue, including 9,816,805 Hui (2000 census) and 10,682,262 Manchu. 1,182,950,000 Han in China (2005 census). Population total all countries: 845,456,760. Widespread north of Changjiang River, a belt south of the Changjiang from Qiujiang (Jiangxi) to Zhenjiang (Jiangsu), Hubei, except southeast corner, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, northwest part of Guangxi, and northwest corner of Hunan. Also in Brunei, Cambodia, Canada, Indonesia (Java and Bali), Laos, Libya, Malaysia (Peninsular), Mauritius, Mongolia, Mozambique, Philippines, Russian Federation (Asia), Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States, Viet Nam, Zambia. Alternate names: Beifang Fangyan, Guanhua, Guoyu, Hanyu, Mandarin, Northern Chinese, Putonghua, Standard Chinese.  Dialects: Huabei Guanhua (Northern Mandarin), Xibei Guanhua (Northwestern Mandarin), Xinan Guanhua (Southwestern Mandarin), Jinghuai Guanhua (Jiangxia Guanhua, Lower Yangze Mandarin). Wenli is a literary form. Written Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect, but heavily influenced by other varieties of Northern Mandarin. Putonghua is the official form taught in schools and is inherently intelligible with Beijing dialect and other Mandarin varieties in the northeast. Mandarin varieties in the Lower Plateau in Shaanxi are not readily intelligible with Putonghua. Mandarin varieties of Guilin and Kunming unintelligible to Putonghua speakers. Taibei Mandarin and Beijing Mandarin are fully mutually inherently intelligible. Nearly all L1 speakers in Taiwan speak with Min-influenced grammar and various degrees of Min-influenced pronunciation. Many educated strive to cultivate standard pronunciation. Grammatical differences of the Taiwan variety often appear in writing.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese 
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Chinese, Min Bei

[mnp] 10,300,000 in China (1984). Population total all countries: 10,304,000. North Fujian Province, 7 counties around Jian’ou. Also in Singapore. Alternate names: Min Pei, Northern Min.  Dialects: The Chinese now divide Chinese Min into 5 major varieties: Min Nan [nan], Min Bei [mnp], Min Dong [cdo], Min Zhong [czo], and Pu-Xian [cpx]. Others say there are at least 9 varieties which are inherently mutually unintelligible.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese 
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Chinese, Min Dong

[cdo] 8,820,000 in China (2000). Population total all countries: 9,134,060. Fujian, Fu’an in northeast to Fuzhou in east central. Also in Brunei, Indonesia (Java and Bali), Malaysia (Peninsular), Singapore, Thailand, United States. Alternate names: Eastern Min.  Dialects: Fuzhou (Fuchow, Foochow, Guxhou). The prestige dialect is spoken in Fujian.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese 
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Chinese, Min Nan

[nan] 25,700,000 in China (1984). 2.5% of the population, including 1,000,000 Xiamen dialect (1988 census), 6,000,000 Quanzhou dialect (Quanzhoushi Fangyan Zhi). Population total all countries: 47,265,100. South Fujian, Guangdong, south Hainan Island, south Zhejiang, south Jiangxi provinces. Xiamen in south Fujian, Jiangxi, and Taiwan; Hainan in Hainan; Leizhou on Leizhou peninsula of southwest Guangdong; Chao-Shan in far east corner of Guangdong in Chaozhou-Shantou area; Longdu is a dialect island around Zhongshan City and Shaxi in Guangdong south of Guangzhou; Zhenan Min in southeast Zhejiang Province around Pingyang and Cangnan and on Zhoushan archipelago of northeast Zhejiang. Also in Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia (Java and Bali), Malaysia (Peninsular), Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, United States. Alternate names: Minnan, Southern Min.  Dialects: Xiamen (Amoy), Leizhou (Lei Hua, Li Hua), Chao-Shan (Choushan, Chaozhou), Hainan (Hainanese, Qiongwen Hua, Wenchang), Longdu, Zhenan Min. Xiamen has subdialects Amoy, Fujian (Fukien, Hokkian, Taiwanese). Amoy is the prestige dialect. Amoy and Taiwanese are easily mutually intelligible. Chao-Shan subdialects: Chaoshou (Chaochow, Chaochow, Teochow, Teochew), Shantou (Swatow). Chao-Shan, including Swatow, has very difficult intelligibility with Amoy; Sanjiang somewhat difficult for other dialect speakers; Hainan quite different from other dialects; Min Nan most widely distributed and influential Min variety. 2 subdialects in Taiwan: Sanso and Chaenzo. Most Min Nan speakers in Thailand use Chaoshou dialect.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese 
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Chinese, Min Zhong

[czo] 3,100,000 (2000 census). Central Fujian Province, Sha County, Yong’an and Sanming municipalities. Alternate names: Central Min.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese 
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Chinese, Pu-Xian

[cpx] 2,520,000 in China (2000). Population total all countries: 2,558,800. East central Fujian Province, Putian and Xianyou counties. Also in Malaysia (Peninsular), Singapore. Dialects: Putian (Putten, Xinghua, Hinghua, Henghua, Hsinghua), Xianyou (Hsienyu).  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese 
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Chinese, Wu

[wuu] 77,200,000 in China (1984). Population total all countries: 77,201,820. Jiangsu south of Changjiang River, east of Zhenjiang, on Chongming Island, mouth of the Changjiang, and north of the Changjiang in the area around Nantong, Haimen, Qidong, and Qingjiang; Zhejiang Province south to Quzhou, Jinhua, and Wenzhou. Also in United States. Alternate names: Wu.  Dialects: Taihu, Jinhua (Kinhwa), Taizhou, Oujiang, Wuzhou, Chuqu, Xuanzhou, Shanghai. Varieties of Taihu dialect are Piling, Su-Hu-Jia, Tiaoxi, Hangzhou, Lin-Shao, Yongjiang; Chuqu subdialects are Chuzhou, Longqu; Xuanzhou varieties are Tongjing, Taigao, Shiling.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese 
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Chinese, Xiang

[hsn] 36,000,000 in China (1984). Population total all countries: 36,024,400. Hunan Province, Sichuan Province, over 20 counties; parts of Guangxi and Guangdong provinces. Also in United States. Alternate names: Hsiang, Hunan, Hunanese, Xiang.  Dialects: Changyi, Luoshao, Jishu. Linguistically between Mandarin and Wu [wuu] Chinese and marginally intelligible with them.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese 
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Chinese, Yue

[yue] 52,000,000 in China (1984). 498,000 in Macau. Population total all countries: 55,541,660. Guangdong (except Hakka speaking areas northeast, Min Nan-speaking areas east, Hainan Island); Guangxi. Hong Kong and Macau. Also in Australia, Brunei, Canada, Costa Rica, Honduras, Indonesia (Java and Bali), Malaysia (Peninsular), Mauritius, Nauru, Netherlands, New Zealand, Panama, Philippines, Singapore, South Africa, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States, Viet Nam. Alternate names: Cantonese, Gwong Dung Waa, Yue, Yueh, Yuet Yue, Yueyu.  Dialects: Yuehai (Guangfu, Hong Kong Cantonese, Macau Cantonese, Shatou, Shiqi, Wancheng), Siyi (Seiyap, Taishan, Toisan, Hoisan, Schleiyip), Gaolei (Gaoyang), Qinlian, Guinan, Ping. The Guangzhou variety is considered the standard. Varieties of Yuehai are Xiangshan, spoken around Zhongshan and Shuhai, and Wanbao around Dong Guan City and Bao’an County.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese 
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Choni

[cda] 154,000 (2004). South Gansu Province, east Gannan Prefecture, Lintan, Zhuoni, Diebu and Zhouqu counties. Alternate names: Chona, Chone, Cone, Jone, Zhuoni.  Dialects: Hbrugchu (Zhouqu), Thewo (Diebu).  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Tibetic, Tibetan, Northern 
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Cun

[cuq] 80,000 (1999 J. Ouyang). 59% monolingual, mainly children, elders, and some women. North Dongfang County, south bank of Changhua River, north bank in Changjiang County, Hainan Island. Alternate names: Cun-Hua, Cunhua, Ngao Fon.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 40% with Hlai [lic]. Many loanwords from Chinese.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Yang-Biao 
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Darang Deng

[mhu] 850 (1999 Sun Hongkai). 750 are monolingual. Southeast Tibet Autonomous Region, Chayu (Zayü) County along Dulai River valley, Xiazayu, Qu’antong, and Gayao townships, Nyingchi Prefecture. Alternate names: Darang, Darang Dengyu, Digaro, Digaro-Mishmi.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, North Assam, Tani 
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Daur

[dta] 96,100 in China (1999 Y. Dong). 24,270 monolinguals. 35,000 Buteha dialect, 35,000 Qiqiha’er dialect, 15,500 Haila’er dialect, 4500 Ili dialect. Ethnic population: 132,394. Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Hulun Buir League, Hailar Prefecture, Morin Dawa (Molidawa) Daur Autonomous Banner, Oroqen Autonomous Banner and Ewenki Autonomous Banner; Heilongjiang Province, Nenjiang Prefecture, Fuyu and Nehe counties; Qiqihar Prefecture, Qiqihar City; northwest Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Tacheng Prefecture (Ili dialect). Also in Mongolia. Alternate names: Daguor, Dagur, Dawar, Dawo’er, Tahuerh, Tahur.  Dialects: Buteha (Butah, Bataxan, Nawen, Nemor, Aihui, Darbin, Mergen), Haila’er (Hailar, Nantun, Mokertu), Qiqiha’er (Qiqihar, Tsitsikhar, Jiangdong, Jingxi, Fularji), Ili. Definitely distinct from other Mongolian languages (Voegelin and Voegelin 1977). Some identify Haila’er dialect as a dialect of Evenki [evn].  Classification: Altaic, Mongolic, Eastern, Dagur 
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Dong, Northern

[doc] 463,000 in China (2003). Area where west Hunan and north Guangxi provinces meet, southeast Guizhou (Yuping Autonomous County); Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. 20 contiguous counties. Also in Viet Nam. Alternate names: Gam, Kam, Tong, Tung, Tung-Chia.  Dialects: Zhanglu speech in Rongjiang County, Guizhou Province is standard variety. Reportedly similar to Mulam [mlm]. Lexical similarity: 80% with Northern Dong varieties, 71% with Southern Dong [kmc], 46% with Lakkia [lbc], 29% with Qabiao [laq], 26% with Hlai [lic], 24% with Gelao [gio], 22% with Lachi [lbt], 6% with Hmong Njua [hnj], 4% with Iu Mien [ium].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Kam-Sui 
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Dong, Southern

[kmc] 1,000,000. 68% of 1,463,000 speak Southern Dong. Area where west Hunan and north Guangxi provinces meet, southeast Guizhou (Yuping Autonomous County); Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. 20 contiguous counties. Alternate names: Gam, Kam, Tong, Tung, Tung-Chia.  Dialects: Similar to Mulam [mlm]. Lexical similarity: 93% with Southern Dong dialects, 71% with Northern Dong [doc], 46% with Lakkia [lbc], 29% with Qabiao [laq], 26% with Hlai [lic], 24% with Gelao [gio], 22% with Lachi [lbt], 6% with Hmong Djua [hnj], 4% with Iu Mien [ium].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Kam-Sui 
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Dongxiang

[sce] 250,000 (1999 Junast). 80,000 monolinguals. Half in the Suonanba dialect. Ethnic population: 373,872 (1990 census). Southwest Gansu Province, Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture, 7 counties and a city; Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Ili Kazak Autonomous Prefecture, Yining and Huocheng counties. Alternate names: Tung, Tunghsiang.  Dialects: Suonanba (Xiaonan), Wangjiaji, Sijiaji. Some intelligibility with Bonan [peh]. Minor dialect differences in pronunciation and borrowed words. Suonanba considered the standard.  Classification: Altaic, Mongolic, Eastern, Mongour 
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Drung

[duu] 14,000 (2000). 95% monolingual. 8,500 in Nu River dialect, 5,500 in Dulong River dialect. Dulong River dialect in far northwest Yunnan, Gongshan Dulong-Nu Autonomous County, both sides of the Dulong River. Nu River dialect from Gongshan Dulong-Nu Autonomous County west to Chayu (Zayü) County in Tibet. Alternate names: Dulong, Qiu, Rawang, Trung, Tulung.  Dialects: Dulong River (Derung River), Nu River. Dialects reportedly inherently intelligible. Nu River Drung is not the same as Tibeto-Burman ‘Nung’ [nun], which is also in Myanmar. Different from Rawang [raw] in Myanmar. Other possible dialect names are Melam, Metu, Tamalu, Tukiumu.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Nungish 
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Dzao Min

[bpn] 60,000 (Wang and Mao 1995). North Guangdong Province, Liannan and Yangshan counties; south Hunan Province, Yizhang County. Alternate names: Ba Pai Yao, Yao Min, Yau Min, Zaomin.  Dialects: Not intelligible with other Mienic languages. Lexical similarity: 61% with Iu Mien [ium], 59% with Kim Mun [mji], 58% with Biao-Jiao Mien [bje].  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Mienic, Zaomin 
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E

[eee] 30,000 (Edmondson 1992). North Guangxi -Zhuang Autonomous Region, Rongshui Hmong Autonomous County, Yongle District, Xiatan, Simo, Xinglong (Xingyou) and other villages; Luocheng Mulam Autonomous County border areas. Alternate names: Eahua, Kjang E, “Wuse Hua” , “Wusehua”.  Classification: Mixed language 
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English

[eng] 59,000 in China (1993). Mainly in Hong Kong. Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, West, English 
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Enu

[enu] 30,000 (Dai and Duan 1995). Simao municipality, Mojiang County, Yayi, Baliu, and Sinanjiang townships; Jiangcheng County, Jiahe, and Qushui townships; Honghe Prefecture, Luchun County. Alternate names: Ximoluo.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 76% with Biyo [byo] (17 % of similarities are Han loanwords that both have borrowed); 74% with Kaduo [ktp].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Hani, Bi-Ka 
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Ersu

[ers] 20,000 (Shearer and Sun 2002). 500 monolinguals. Ersu (Eastern Ersu, 13,000), Duoxu (Central Ersu, 3000), Lizu (Western Ersu, 4000). South central Sichuan, lower reaches of the Dadu River; Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Ganluo, Yuexi, Mianning, and Muli counties; Ya’an Prefecture, Shimian and Hanyuan counties; Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Jiulong County; dispersed among Yi, Chinese, and Tibetan peoples. Alternate names: Bu’erci, Bu’erzi, Bu’erzi Ersu, Doxu, Duoxu, Erhsu, Lizu, Lusu, T’osu.  Dialects: Ersu (Eastern Ersu), Duoxu (Central Ersu), Lisu (Western Ersu, Lüzü, Liru). Menia (Menya) reportedly a dialect, but unclear relation to other dialects. Dialect differences reportedly great,with low mutual intelligibility.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, Qiangic 
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Evenki

[evn] 19,000 in China (1999 D. Chaoke). 3,000 monolinguals. Huihe 14,300, Aoluguya 150, Chenba’erhu 1,600. Population total all countries: 27,615. Ethnic population: 30,500 (2000 census). Inner Mongolia: Hulunbuir banners; Ewenki, Moriadawa, Oronchon, Chen Bargu, Arong, Ergune East, and Huisuomu; Heilongjiang Province, Nale Prefecture; a few in Xinjiang. Also in Mongolia, Russian Federation (Asia), United States. Alternate names: Ewenke, Ewenki, Khamnigan, Owenke, Solon, Suolun.  Dialects: Haila’er, Aoluguya (Olguya), Chenba’erhu (Old Bargu), Morigele (Mergel), Huihe (Hoy). Huihe is the standard dialect. Significant dialect differences from the Russian Federation.  Classification: Altaic, Tungusic, Northern, Evenki 
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Ge

[hmj] 60,000 (1995 F. Wang). East central Guizhou: Huangping County, Chong’an Township; Kaili Municipality, Longchang Township. Alternate names: Ge Jia, Gejia, Ge-Mong, Gho-mhon, Gedou, Gedong, Gedang, Keh Deo, Gedou Miao, Gedu, Gedoudiu.  Dialects: Not inherently intelligible with other varieties of Miao.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Gelao

[gio] 3,000 (1999 L. Jinfang). 500 monolinguals. Qau 2000, A’ou 1500, Hagei 1700, Duoluo 1200, Tu’lu 1500. Ethnic population: 579,357 (2000 census). Guizhou Province, Zunyi, Daozhen Gelao and Miao, Wuchuan Gelao and Miao autonomous counties; southwest Guizhou Province, Anshun, and Bijie prefectures; southeast Yunnan Province, Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous District Prefecture, Maguan and Malipo counties, and those near Vietnam border; Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Baise Prefecture, Longlin PanMultiple-Nationalities Autonomous County; Hunan Province. Alternate names: Chilao, Gelo, Ilao, Kehlao, Kelao, Keleo, Khi, Klau, Klo, Lao.  Dialects: Qau (Gao, Aqao), A’ou (A’uo), Hagei (Hakei, Hakhi), Duoluo (Toluo). Dialects probably not mutually intelligible. Tu’lu is a speech form of uncertain status spoken by Baigelao (White Gelao) people in Yunnan, Wenshan Prefecture, Malipo County. Lexical similarity: 45% with Lu [khb], 40% with Dong [doc], 36% with Lachi [lbt], 32% with Qabiao [laq], 24% with Dong [doc], 22% with Lakkia [lbc], 27%–40% with Hlai [lic], 10%–15% with Hmong Djua [hnj], 5%–15% with Iu Mien [ium].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Ge-Yang 
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Geman Deng

[mxj] 200 in China (1999 Sun Hongkai). Several townships in Chayu (Zayü) County, Nyingchi Prefecture, on tablelands either side of lower reaches of Chayu (Zayü) River in southeast corner of Tibet Autonomous Region, in their own small villages. Alternate names: Kaman, Keman, Miji, Miju, Mishmi.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, North Assam, Tani 
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Gepo

[ygp] 100,000 (2007), decreasing. Northeast Yunnan Province: Luquan, Fumin, Xundian, Luxi, Shizong, Luoping, Malong, Songming, Huize, Mile, Shilin, and Dongchuan counties. Alternate names: Köpu, Gupu, Gepu, Guo, Pingtouyi, Jiantouyi, Baiyi, Nasu, Guzu.  Dialects: Luquan Naso, Wuding Naisu. Related to Nasu [ywq].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Groma

[gro] 12,800 in China (1993). Population total all countries: 26,800. Chambi Valley, between Sikkim and Bhutan, Tibet. Also in India. Alternate names: Tromowa.  Dialects: Upper Groma, Lower Groma. Possible dialects or related languages: Spiti, Tomo (Chumbi).  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Tibetic, Tibetan, Southern 
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Guanyinqiao

[jiq] 50,000 (1993 Lin). North central Sichuan, southwest tip of Maerkang County, Jinchuan River tributaries; northwest Jinchuan County; southeast Rangtang County. Alternate names: Western Jiarong, Zhongzhai.  Dialects: Xiaoyili, Siyaowu, Muerzong, Guanyingqiao, Ergali, Taiyanghe, Ere, Yelong. Phonologically Western and Northern are fairly similar and differ greatly from Eastern. Lexical similarity: 60% between Western and Northern Jiarong dialects.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, rGyarong 
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Guiqiong

[gqi] 6,000 (2000 H. Sun). 1,000 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 7,000 (2000 D. Bradley). West central Sichuan, Ganzi (Garzê) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Luding County, plateaus on both sides of the Dadu River north; northwest Tianquan County. One town is Wasigou. Alternate names: Guichong.  Dialects: Phonological dialect differences, but communication is possible. 2 or 3 varieties have difficult mutual intelligibility.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, Qiangic 
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Hani

[hni] 740,000 in China (Bradley 2007). 60% of the official nationality are monolingual. Population total all countries: 518,620. South Yunnan, Jingdong and Jinggu counties, Yuanjiang and Lancang (Mekong) river basins, Ailao Mountains. Also in Laos, Viet Nam. Alternate names: Hanhi, Hani Proper, Haw.  Dialects: Hani has numerous dialects and is fairly similar to Akha [ahk].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southern 
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Hlai

[lic] 667,000 (1999 J. Ouyang). 160,000 monolinguals. 432,000 Ha, 178,000 Qi, 44,000 Bendi, 30,000 Meifu (1990 census). Ethnic population: 1,247,814 (2000 census). Central and southern Hainan Province, Wanning, Tunchang, Danxiang, Chengmai, Baisha. Alternate names: Bli, Dai, Day, Dli, Klai, La, Lai, Le, Li, Loi, Slai.  Dialects: Ha (Luohua-Hayan-Baoxian), Qi (Gei, Tongshi-Qiandui-Baocheng), Meifu (Moifau), Bendi (Zwn, Baisha-Yuanmen, Local Li). Some dialects may be separate languages. Matisoff (1988) lists 8 varieties: Baoding, Xifang, Tongshi, Baisha, Qiandiu, Heitu, Yuanmen, Baocheng. Luowo subdialect of Ha dialect is considered the standard. Lexical similarity: 27% with Gelao [gio], 26% with Dong [doc] and Qabiao [laq], 25% with Lachi [lbt].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Hlai 
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Hlersu

[hle] 15,000 (2007), decreasing. Central Yunnan Province, Zhenyuan and Shuangbai counties, scattered mountaintop locations; Yuanjiang County, 38 villages; Xinping County, 40 villages; Eshan County, 6 villages; Shiping County, 5 villages. Alternate names: Shansu, Sansu, Lesu.  Dialects: Related to Lolopo [ycl].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Hmong

[hmn] A macrolanguage.  Population total all countries: 6,463,595. 
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Hmong Njua

[hnj] 40,000 in China (Hattaway 2000). Southeast Yunnan, Maguan, and Malipo counties. Alternate names: Mong Ntsua, Hmong Nzhua, Blue Hmong, Blue Meo, Tak Miao, Green Hmong, Green Meo, Qing Miao, Ching Miao, Lu Miao; Meo Dam, Meo Lai, Hmong Lens, Hmoob Leeg.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Hong Kong Sign Language

[hks] 20,000 (2007). Hong Kong, SAR. Alternate names: Heung Kong Sau Yue.  Dialects: 40% similarity with Chinese Sign Language [csl], 42%–52% similarity with Taiwan Sign Language [tss].  Classification: Deaf sign language 
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Honi

[how] 140,000 (Bradley 2007). South Yunnan Province, east Simao Prefecture, Mojiang Hani, Pu’er Hani, Yi, and Dai autonomous counties; Yuxi Municipal Prefecture, Yuanjiang Hani, and Yi and Dai autonomous counties. Alternate names: Baihong, Hao-Bai, Haoni, Ho, Ouni, Uni, Woni.  Dialects: Haoni, Baihong. Dialects may be separate languages.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southern 
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Horpa

[ero] 45,000 (Shearer and Sun 2002). 15,000 monolinguals. Eastern dialect: 4000, Northern dialect: 5000, Central dialect: 19,000, Western Dialect 17,000. Sichuan Province, Ganzi (Garzê) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Danba (=Rongzhag), Daofu (Dawu), Luhuo, Xinlong (Nyagrong) counties; Aba (Ngawa) Tibetan-Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, Jinchua (Quqên) County; Ganzi Prefecture, Chengguan District, Central and eastern Daofu County; Wari District, Wari, Xiajia, and Muru townships; Bamei District, Shazhong Township; Danba County, Dasang District, Geshiza, Bianer, and Dandong townships; Chuangu District, Donggu Township; Jinchuan District, Bawang, Jinchuan townships. Scattered communities in Hexi District, Manqing, Zhuwo, and Duoshan townships; Xialatuo District, Renda Township. Alternate names: Bawang, Bopa, Danba, Daofu, Daofuhua, Dawu, Ergong, Gangli, Hor, Hórsók, Huo’er, Pawang, Rgu, Stau, Western Gyarong, Western Jiarong.  Dialects: Western (Daofu, Taofu, Western Horpa, Western Ergong, Dawu), Eastern (Zhongzhai, Gangli, Jinchuan, Lawurong), Northern (Shangzhai, Rangtang), Central (Danba, Geshiza, Geshitsa). Eastern variety may be a separate language. The dialects of Horpa reportedly are not mutually intelligible.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, rGyarong 
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Hu

[huo] 1,000 (2006 L. Jinfang). Southwest Yunnan Province, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Mengla and Jinghong counties, 5 villages, including Nahuopa village in Jinghong, Mengyang Township. Dialects: Possibly a dialect of U [uuu], 76% similar lexically with U of Shuangjiang County.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Angkuic 
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Ili Turki

[ili] 120 in China (1980 R. Hahn), decreasing. Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Ili Kazak Autonomous Prefecture, Tekes, Nilka, Xinyuan, Gongliu, Zhaosu, and other counties, Ili Valley near Kuldja. Also in Kazakhstan. Alternate names: T’urk, Tu’erke, Tuerke.  Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Eastern 
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Iu Mien

[ium] 383,000 in China (Wang and Mao 1995). Population total all countries: 818,635. Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Dayao Mountains, Guangdong in Ruyuan County, Yunnan, Hunan provinces; Guizhou Province, Rongjiang, Congjiang, and Libo counties. Also in Belgium, Denmark, France, Laos, Myanmar, New Zealand, Switzerland, Thailand, United States, Viet Nam. Alternate names: Ban Yao, Highland Yao, Mian, Mien, Myen, Pan Yao, Yao, Yiu Mien, Youmian.  Dialects: Guoshan Yao. Dialects may not be intelligible. Biao Mon [bmt] may be a dialect of Iu Mien. Differences from other Mienic languages are in the tone system, consonants, vowel quality, vowel length. Chinese linguists consider the Iu Mien spoken in Changdong, Jinxiu Yao Autonomous County, Guangxi is the standard. May be most similar to Mandarin Chinese [cmn]. Lexical similarity: 78% with Kim Mun [mji], 70% with Biao-Jiao Mien [bje], 61% with Dzao Min [bpn].  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Mienic, Mian-Jin 
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Jiamao

[jio] 52,300 (Wurm et al. 1987). South Hainan Province, Baoting, Lingshui, and Qiongzhong counties, near Wuzhi Mountain. Alternate names: Gevou, Kamau, Ku vou, Tai.  Dialects: Considered by Chinese linguists a dialect of Hlai [lic], but very different from Hlai dialects in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Hlai 
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Jiarong

[jya] 83,000 (1999 H. Sun). 25,000 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 151,197 including 139,000 in Situ Jiarong, 12,197 in Chabao and Sidaba (Lin 1993). North central Sichuan. Situ is in the traditional territory of 4 chieftaincies: Zhuokeji, Suomo, Songgang, Dangba. Chabao is in northeast corner of Maerkang County, Chabao District, Longerjia, Dazang, and Shaerzong townships. Sidaba is in Maerkang County, Sidaba District, Caodeng, Kangshan, and Ribu townships; north in southwest corner of Aba County, Kehe and Rongan townships; west along middle Duke River, Rangtang County, between Wuyi and Shili townships; and Seda County at the confluence of Seda and Duke rivers, a small town. Alternate names: Chiarong, Gyarong, Gyarung, Jarong, Jyarung, Rgyarong.  Dialects: Situ (Eastern Jiarong), Chabao (Dazang, Northeastern, Northern, Central Jiarong), Sidaba (Caodeng, Northwestern, Western Jiarong). Varieties of Situ are: Ma’erkang, Lixian, Jinchuan (Dajin), and Xiaojin; Varieties of Sidaba are Caodeng and Ribu. Western and Northern phonology are fairly similar but differ greatly from Eastern. Dialects are likely three separate mutually unintelligible languages. Lexical similarity: 75% between Eastern and Northern Jiarong (with significant phonological differences), 60% between Western and Northern, 13% between the Situ dialect and Horpa [ero].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, rGyarong 
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Jingpho

[kac] 40,000 in China (1999 X. Xu). 50% monolingual. Ethnic population: 132,143 in China (2000 census). West Yunnan, Dehong Dai-Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture, Yingjiang, Longchuan, and Ruili counties; Baoshan Prefecture,Tengchong County. Alternate names: Chingp’o, Chingpaw, Dashanhua, Jinghpaw, Jingpo, Kachin, Marip.  Dialects: Enkun (Nkhumka, Nkhum), Shidan (Satanka, Xidan), Hkaku (Hka-Hku), Kauri (Hkauri, Gauri, Kauri, Khauri, Kauzhika), Mengzhi, Dzili (Jili), Dulong.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Jingpho-Konyak-Bodo, Jingpho-Luish, Jingpho 
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Jinuo, Buyuan

[jiy] 1,000 (1994). Most monolingual. Ethnic population: 18,021 (1990 census). South Yunnan, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, near Laos and Myanmar borders, east of Jinghong. Youle Mountains. 40 villages. Alternate names: Buyuan, Jino.  Dialects: Buyuan and Youle dialects not mutually inherently intelligible. Chinese used for communication.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Jinuo, Youle

[jiu] 10,000 (Bradley 2007). South Yunnan, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, near Laos and Myanmar borders, east of Jinghong. Youle Mountains. 40 villages. Alternate names: Jino, Youle.  Dialects: Youle and Buyuan dialects not mutually inherently intelligible. Chinese used to communicate.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Jurchen

[juc] Extinct.  Alternate names: Nuchen, Nuzhen.  Dialects: Related to Manchu [mnc].  Classification: Altaic, Tungusic, Southern, Southwest 
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Kaduo

[ktp] 180,000 in China (Bradley 2007), increasing. Population total all countries: 185,000. Yunnan Province, primarily southeast Simao Prefecture, Pu’er, Mojiang, and Jiangcheng counties. Also in Laos. Alternate names: Khatu.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southern 
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Kalmyk-Oirat

[xal] 139,000 in China (Wurm et al. 1987). 106,000 of Torgut (Tu’erhute) dialect and 33,000 of Kök Nur (Qinghai). Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region; Bayan Gool Autonomous Prefecture, Bortala Autonomous Prefecture. Alternate names: Oirat, Weilate, Western Mongol, Xinjiang Mongolian.  Dialects: Torgut (Tu’erhute), Kök Nur (Qinghai), Jakhachin, Bayit, Mingat, Olot (Ööld, Elyut, Eleuth), Khoshut (Khoshuud), Dorbot.  Classification: Altaic, Mongolic, Eastern, Oirat-Khalkha, Oirat-Kalmyk-Darkhat 
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Kang

[kyp] 34,100 in China (1993). Southwest Yunnan. Alternate names: Tai Khang.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Kam-Sui 
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Kangjia

[kxs] 430 (1999 Sechenchogt). Ethnic population: 487. Qinghai Province, Huangnan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Jainca County, Shalimu, Zongzila, and Hangdao villages. Alternate names: Kangyang Hui.  Classification: Altaic, Mongolic, Eastern, Mongour 
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Kathu

[ykt] 5,000 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, Guangnan County, Balong District. Possibly in Guangxi. Alternate names: Gasu.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Katso

[kaf] 4,000 (Bradley 1997), decreasing. Yunnan Province, Yuxi Prefecture, Tonghai County, Xingmeng Mongolian Autonomous Township. Alternate names: Gazhuo, Gezhuo, Kazhuo.  Dialects: All are proficient in Southwest Mandarin.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Kazakh

[kaz] 1,250,000 in China (2000 census). 85% are monolingual. 830,000 Northeastern Kazakh, 70,000 Southwestern Kazakh (1982). North Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Prefecture, Yili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, eastern Xinjiang; Mulei Kazakh Autonomous County, Balikun Kazakh Autonomous County; northwest Gansu, Akesai Kazakh Autonomous County; northwest Qinghai provinces. Alternate names: Hazake, Kazak, Kazax.  Dialects: Northeastern Kazakh, Southwestern Kazakh.  Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Western, Aralo-Caspian 
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Kemiehua

[kfj] 1,000 (1991). Southwest Yunnan Province, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Jinghong County. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Unclassified 
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Khakas

[kjh] 10 in China (1982 census). Ethnic population: 875. Heilongjiang Province, Fuyu County, north of Qiqihar. Alternate names: Abakan Tatar, Khakhas, Khakhass, Yenisei Tatar.  Dialects: Sagai, Beltir, Kacha, Kyzyl, Shor, Kamassian.  Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Northern 
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Khlula

[ykl] 21,000 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, southeast Wenshan County, northern and central parts of Maguan County. Alternate names: Tula, Namupha, Alapha, Mo, Pao, Hei Phula, Black Phula, Shaoji Phula, Sifter Basket Phula, Phulapha, Zokhuo Na, Black Zokhuo.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Khmu

[kjg] 1,600 in China (1990). Southwest Yunnan Province, in Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Jinghong County (9 villages), some in Mengla County. Alternate names: Chaman, Damai, Damailao, Damaile, Kamhmu, Kammu, Kamu, Kemu, Khamu, Khamuk, Khmu’, Khomu, Lao Terng, Mou, Pouteng, Theng.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu’, Khmu’ 
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Khuen

[khf] 1,000 in China (1993).  Alternate names: Khouen, Khween, Kween.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu’, Khmu’ 
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Kim Mun

[mji] 200,000 in China (Wang and Mao 1995). 61,000 in Hainan Province (2000 census). Population total all countries: 374,500. Yunnan Province, seventeen counties; Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, thirteen counties; Hainan Province, 7 counties. Also in Laos, Viet Nam. Alternate names: Chasan Yao, Gem Mun, Hainan Miao, Jim Mun, Jinmen, Kem Mun, Kimmun, Lan Tin, Lanten, Lowland Yao, Man Lantien, Men, Mun, Shanzi Yao.  Dialects: Dao Quan Trang, Dao Ho. Not intelligible with Iu Mien [ium]. Lexical similarity: 78% with Iu Mien, 67% with Biao-Jiao Mien [bje], 59% with Dzao Min [bpn].  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Mienic, Mian-Jin 
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Kon Keu

[kkn] 6,300 (2000). Southwest Yunnan Province, Xishuangbanna Dai Lincang, Baoshan, Simao prefectures. Possibly also in Myanmar and (or) Laos. Alternate names: Kongge.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Angkuic 
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Korean

[kor] 1,920,000 in China (2000 census). 1,200,000 monolinguals. Inner Mongolia. 46% in Hyanbian Korean Autonomous District along Tumen River, Jilin (Kirin); Heilongjiang; Liaoning. Alternate names: Chaoxian.  Classification: Language isolate 
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Kuanhua

[xnh] 1,000 (1991). Southwest Yunnan Province, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Jinghong County. Alternate names: Damai.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Unclassified 
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Kucong

[lkc] 40,000 in China (Bradley 2007), decreasing. Central Yunnan Province, Jinping, Luchun, Jiangcheng, Mengla, Yuanjiang, Xinping, Jinggu, and other counties. Alternate names: Cosung, Lahlu.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Kyerung

[kgy] 100 in China (2002). Tibet. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Tibetic, Tibetan, Central 
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Kyrgyz

[kir] 160,000 in China (2000 census). Older adults monolingual. 60,000 Northern Kirghiz, 40,000 Southern Kirghiz. West and southwest Xinjiang, in Wuqia, Akqi, Akto, Tekes, Zhaosu, Baicheng, Wushi counties. Alternate names: Kara, Ke’erkez, Kirgiz.  Dialects: Southern Kyrgyz, Northern Kyrgyz.  Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Western, Aralo-Caspian 
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Lachi

[lbt] 60 in China (2000 L. Yunbing), decreasing. Ethnic includes 193 Bag Lachi in 37 households, 852 Han Lachi in 179 households, 157 Red Lachi in 27 households, 432 Flowery Lachi in 72 households. Ethnic population: 1,634. Yunnan Province, Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, southern Maguan County, several villages. Alternate names: I To, Ku Te, La Chi, Laji, Lati, Lipulio, Tai Lati, Y Mia, Y Poong, Y To.  Dialects: Lipute (Bag Lachi), Liputcio (Han Lachi), Lipuke (Red Lachi), Lipuliongtco (Flowery Lachi), Liputiõ (Black Lachi), Lipupi (Long-Haired Lachi).  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Ge-Chi 
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Ladakhi

[lbj] 12,000 in China (1995). Western Tibet. Alternate names: Ladak, Ladaphi, Ladhakhi, Ladwags.  Dialects: Leh (Central Ladakhi), Shamma (Sham, Shamskat, Lower Ladakhi), Nubra Ladakhi.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Tibetic, Tibetan, Western, Ladakhi 
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Lahu

[lhu] 280,000 in China (Bradley 2007). Population total all countries: 445,700. Southwest Yunnan Province, Simao Prefecture, Lancang Lahu, Menglian Dai, Lahu & Va autonomous counties; Lincang Prefecture, Gengma Dai, Va autonomous counties. Also in Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam. Alternate names: Kaixien, Kucong, Kutsong, Lahuna, Laku, Lohei, Moso, Muhso, Mussar, Musso, Mussuh, Namen.  Dialects: Na (Black Lahu, Musser Dam, Northern Lahu, Lohei), Nyi (Red Lahu, Southern Lahu, Musse Daeng), Shehleh. Na considered standard dialect. Black Lahu and Lahu Shi (Yellow Lahu) have difficult intelligibility. (See separate entry for Lahu Shi.) Mossu is in Laos. Lahu Shi (Yellow Lahu) and Kucong Lahupu (White Lahu, e.g. in Zhenyuan County) are distinct.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Lahu Shi

[lhi] 117,000 in China (Bradley 2007), increasing. Population total all countries: 196,200. Ethnic population: 120,000. South Yunnan Province, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Menghai District, Menghai County (Menghai Township); Simao Prefecture, Lancang Lahu Autonomous County, Nuofu District, other areas. Also in Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, United States. Alternate names: Kur, Kwi, Lahu Xi, Shi, Yellow Lahu.  Dialects: Banlan, Bakeo. Most similar to Lahu [lhu].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Lakkia

[lbc] 12,000 (1999 L. Baoyuan). 4,000 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 12,000. Eastern Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Jinxiu Yao Autonomous County. Alternate names: Chashan Yao, Lajia, Laka, Lakia, Lakja, Lakkja, Tai Laka, Tea Mountain Yao.  Dialects: Classified as Yao (Mien) nationality, but the language is Tai-Kadai (Svantesson). Phonetically similar to Iu Mien [ium], word order to Bunu [bwx]. Not intelligible with Hmong Djua [hnj] or Bunu. Minimal variation within Lakkia. All varieties mutually inherently intelligible. Lexical similarity: 45% with Dong [doc], 23% with Lachi [lbt] and Qabiao [laq], 22% with Gelao [gio].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Lakkja 
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Lalo, Dongshanba

[yik] 30,000 (2002). West Yunnan, in Weishan, Yangbi, Midu, Xiaguan, Yongping, Baoshan, and Lancang counties. Alternate names: Lalu, Lalupa, Lalupu.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Lalo, Xishanba

[ywt] 300,000 (Xiong 1991). West Yunnan, in Weishan, Fengqing, Midu, Changning, Lincang, Yunxian, Jingdong, Jinggu, Yongde, Shidian, Nanjian, Yangbi, Zhenkang, Yunlong, Zhenyuan, Binchuan, Eryuan, and Heqing counties. Alternate names: Lalo, Lalopa, Misaba.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Lalu, Eastern

[yit] 38,000 (2002). Yunnan, in Xinping, Zhenyuan, Mojiang, and Yuanjiang counties. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Lalu, Western

[ywl] 38,000 (2002). West Yunnan, in Baoshan, Shidian, Zhenkang, Longling, Luxi counties. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Lamu

[llh] 120 (2007), decreasing. Ethnic population: 295. Yunnan Province, Dali Prefecture, Northeast Binchuan County. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Lang’e

[yne] 2,000 (2007). Yunnan Province, southwest Yongsheng County. Alternate names: La’u.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Laomian

[lwm] 1,600 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, northwest Lancang County; Menglian County. Alternate names: Guba, Lawmeh, Bisu.  Dialects: Similar to Bisu [bzi].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southern 
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Lashi

[lsi] 1,800 in China (1997). Yunnan Province, Dehong Dai-Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture, Luxi, Longchuan, Yingjiang, and Ruili counties. Alternate names: Acye, Chashanhua, Lachikwaw, Lasi, Leqi, Letsi.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Northern 
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Lhaovo

[mhx] 3,500 in China (2000). West Yunnan Province, Dehong Dai-Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture, Luxi, Longchuan, Yingjiang, Ruili, Lianghe counties. Alternate names: Diso, Lang’e, Laungaw, Laungwaw, Lawng, Liangsu, Malu, Matu, Maru, Nyky, Zi.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Northern 
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Lhomi

[lhm] 1,000 in China. Tibet Autonomous Region. Alternate names: Lhoket, Shing Saapa.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Tibetic, Tibetan, Central 
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Limi

[ylm] 29,000 (2002). Yunnan, in Yongde, Fengqing, Yunxian counties. Alternate names: Liumi.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Lingao

[onb] 600,000 (2000 L. Min). 100,000 monolinguals. 350,000 Lincheng, 170,000 Qiongshan. Hainan north central coast, Lingao County, parts of Danxian, Chengmai, and Qiongshan counties, Haikou City suburbs. Alternate names: Bê, Limkow, Linkow, Ong-Be, Ongbe, Vo Limkou.  Dialects: Lincheng (Lingao Proper-Dengmai), Qiongshan.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Be 
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Lipo

[lpo] 420,000 (2007). North-central Yunnan Province in Luquan, Wuding, Lufeng, Yuanmo, Yongsheng, Dayao, Binchuan, Yuanmo, Yongren, Yao’an counties; south Sichuan Province, Renhe County. Alternate names: Central Lisu, Dayao, Eastern Lisu, Lolongo.  Dialects: Western Lipo, Eastern Lipo. Both dialects are similar to Lisu [lis], but neither is intelligible with Lisu.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Lisu

[lis] 610,000 in China (2000 census), increasing. Population total all countries: 767,000. West Yunnan Province, 11 prefectures, 63 counties, upper reaches of Salween and Mekong rivers; Sichuan Province, southwest Liangshan Prefecture. Also in India, Myanmar, Thailand. Alternate names: Chedi, Cheli, Chung, Khae, Leisu, Leshuoopa, Lesuo, Li, Li-Hsaw, Li-Shaw, Lip’a, Lisaw, Lishu, Liso, Lissu, Loisu, Lu-Tzu, Lusu, Southern Lisu, Yao Yen, Yaw Yin, Yaw-Yen, Yeh-Jen.  Dialects: Bai Lisu (White Lisu), Dechang Lisu, Hei Lisu (Black Lisu), Hua Lisu (Flowery Lisu), Lu Shi Lisu, Ninglang Lisu, Northern Lisu, Nujiang Lisu, Shibacha Lisu, Western Lisu.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Northern, Lisu 
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Lolopo

[ycl] 380,000 (2007). Central Yunnan Province, Nanhua, Chuxiong, Yao’an, Jingdong, Shuangbai, Mouding, and Lufeng counties primarily. Alternate names: Bai Yi, Central Yi, Gaoshanzu, Hei Yi, Lolopho, Lulupu, Luolu.  Dialects: Nanhua Lolopo, Shuangbai Lolopo, Yao’an Lolopo.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Lolopo, Southern

[ysp] 190,000 (2002). Yunnan, in Jingdong, Jinggu, Lancang, Zhenyuan, Simao, Pu’er counties. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Northern, Yi, Central Yi 
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Lü

[khb] 280,000 in China (2000 census). 50% monolingual. Population total all countries: 701,960. South Yunnan, Jinghong (Chiang Hung, Chien Rung), Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, west of Lixianjiang (Black) River. Also in Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam. Alternate names: Dai, Dai Le, Lu, Lue, Ly, Pai’i’, Pai-I, Shui-Pai-I, Sipsongpanna Dai, Tai Lu, Xishuangbanna Dai.  Dialects: Mu’ang Yong and dialects in the Lanna area may converge phonologically with Northern Thai [nod] (Diller and Juntanamalaga 1990). Low intelligibility with Shan [shn] (Dehong). Different from Tai Nüa [tdd], each having their own traditions. Most closely related to Khun [kkh]. Lexical similarity: 88% with Northern Thai, 74% with Central Thai [tha].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Northwest 
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Luoba, Boga’er

[adi] 1,090 in China (1999 J. Ouyang). 400 monolinguals. Southeast Tibet, Lhunze and Mainling counties, south of Yaluzangjiang River, Luoyu area. Alternate names: Abor, Adi, Adi-Bokar, Bengni-Boga’er, Boga’er, Bokar, Lho-Pa, Lhoba.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, North Assam, Tani 
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Luoba, Yidu

[clk] 80 in China (1999 H. Sun). 50 monolinguals. Southeast Tibet, Nyingchi Prefecture, Chayu County, Xia Chayu (Zayu) zone, Xia Chayu (Zayu) and Ba’antong townships, in Danba River valley and adjoining mountain slopes, near Bhutan border. Alternate names: Chulikata, Idu Lhoba, Idu Mishmi, Lho-Pa, Lhoba, Yidu.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, North Assam, Tani 
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Macanese

[mzs] 4,000 (Voegelin and Voegelin 1977). Ethnic population: 8,500 (1985). Macau, Hong Kong. Possibly in USA. Alternate names: Macaense, Macao Creole Portuguese.  Classification: Creole, Portuguese based 
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Mahei

[mja] 12,000. Yunnan Province, Jinggu Dai, Yi, Pu’er Hani, Yi autonomous counties. (Jinggu, formerly Chingku or Kingku; Pu’er, formerly Ning Erh). Alternate names: Mahe, Maheh.  Dialects: May be identical to Lolo [llb].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha 
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Mak

[mkg] 10,000 (1982 census). Ethnic population: 10,000 (2000 D. Bradley). Guizhou Province, northwest Libo County, Yangfeng, Fangcun, Jialiang, and Di’e villages; some in neighboring Dushan County. Alternate names: Ching, Mo, Mo-Hua, Mochiahua, Mohua, Mojiahua.  Dialects: Mak, Chi, Ching (Cham), Hwa, Lyo. Dialect differences are minor. Similar to Ai-Cham [aih].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Kam-Sui 
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Man Met

[mml] 900 (1990 J-O. Svantesson). Southwest Yunnan Province, 5 communities in Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture near the Hu. Alternate names: Manmi, Manmit.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Angkuic 
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Manchu

[mnc] 60 (1999 A. Zhao). Ethnic population: 10,682,262 (2000 census). Heilongjiang, a few Manchu-speaking villages in Aihui and Fuyu counties. Alternate names: Man.  Dialects: Bala, Alechuxa, Jing, Lalin.  Classification: Altaic, Tungusic, Southern, Southwest 
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Mang

[zng] 500 in China. Yunnan Province, Honghe Prefecture, Jinping County, Honghe Mengla District. 4 villages. Alternate names: Ba’e, Chaman, Manbu, Mang U, Xamang.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Mang 
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Maonan

[mmd] 30,000 (2005), decreasing. A few thousand women and children monolinguals. Ethnic population: 107,166 (2000 census). North central Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County, Xianan; a few in nearby Hechi, Yishan, Nandan, Du’an counties. Alternate names: Ai Nan.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Kam-Sui 
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Miao, Central Huishui

[hmc] 40,000 (1995 F. Wang). Central Guizhou Province, Huishui and Changshun counties, suburbs of south Guiyang Municipality. Alternate names: Central Huishui Hmong.  Dialects: Inherently mutually unintelligible with other Miao varieties. 30 to 40 different Hmong (Miao) languages in China. Great linguistic differences.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Central Mashan

[hmm] 70,000 (1995 F. Wang). South central Guizhou Province, Ziyun, Wangmo and Luodian counties. Alternate names: Central Mashan Hmong.  Dialects: Not inherently intelligible with other varieties of Miao.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Chuanqiandian Cluster

[cqd] 1,400,000 (1995 F. Wang). West Guizhou, west Guangxi, south Sichuan, Yunnan (especially southeast and northeast). Alternate names: Chuanchientien Miao, Chuanqiandian Miao, Core Farwestern Hmongic, Hua Miao, Sichuan-Guizhou-Yunnan Miao, Western Miao.  Dialects: Hmong Dou, Downhill Hmong, Hongxian Miao, Red Thread Miao, Dananshan Miao, Hua Miao, Hwa Miao, Mong Hoa, Flowery Meo, Variegated Mong, Mong Leng, Mong Lenh, Hmong Len, Mong Shi, Mong Si, Hmong Shi, Light Hmong, Bai Miao, Qing Miao, Blue Hmong, Blue Meo, Tak Miao, Green Hmong, Green Meo, Qing Miao, Ching Miao, Lu Miao, Meo Dam, Black Meo, Meo Lai, Striped Hmong, Hmong Dle Ncha, Qingshui Miao, Clear Water Hmong, Hmong La, Red Mong, Mong La Hou, Red-headed Hmong, Hmong La, Paddyfield Miao, Hmong Shua Bua, Sa Pa Hmong, Meo Den, Hmong Den, Hmong Dlo, Hmong Bua, Hmong Sou, Hei Miao, Black Mong, Black Hmong, Hmong Be, Mountain Hmong, Chuan Miao, River Miao, Sichuan Miao, Yaque Miao, Magpie Miao, Hmong Drout Raol, Six Village Miao, Liuzhai Miao, Luzhai Miao, Dianxi Miao, Western Yunnan Miao, Bai Miao, White Miao. Similar to White Miao [mww].  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Eastern Huishui

[hme] 14,000 (1995 F. Wang). Central and south Guizhou Province, Huishui, Pingba, Luodian counties. Alternate names: Eastern Huishui Hmong.  Dialects: Inherently mutually unintelligible with other Miao varieties.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Eastern Qiandong

[hmq] 350,000 (1995 F. Wang). East Guizhou Province, Jianhe, Jinping and Liping counties; west Hunan Province, Huitong, Jingzhou and Tongdao counties. Alternate names: Black Miao, Central Miao, Chientung Miao, Eastern East-Guizhou Miao, Eastern Hmu, Hei Miao, Hmu.  Dialects: Not intelligible with other Miao varieties. Corresponds more or less to Ma’s Central Miao and Purnell’s Eastern Miao.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Qiandong 
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Miao, Eastern Xiangxi

[muq] 80,000 (1995 F. Wang). West Hunan Province, Luxi, Guzhang, Jishou and Longshan counties, some in Hubei. Alternate names: Eastern Ghao-Xong, Eastern Miao, Eastern West-Hunan Miao, Ghao-Xong, Hsianghsi Miao, Meo Do, Northern Miao, Red Meo, Red Miao.  Dialects: Not inherently intelligible with other varieties of Miao.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Xiangxi 
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Miao, Horned

[hrm] 50,000 (Hattaway 2000). Northeastern Yunnan, Zhenxiong County, Guiyang, Bijie, Qingzhen cities; northwest and central Guizhou, Dafang, Nayong and Zhijin counties. Alternate names: A-Hmo, Bai Miao, Hmong Khua Shua Ndrang, Hmong Sou, Jiao Miao, Jiaojiao Miao, Kha-Nzi, White Miao.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Large Flowery

[hmd] 300,000 (1995 F. Wang). Northwest Guizhou Province, Weining, Hezhang, Shuicheng, Pu’an, Zhenning, and Ziyun counties, Liupanshui municipality; northeast and central Yunnan Province, Zhaotong area, Yongshan, Yiliang, Daguan, Suijiang, Qiaojia, Xundian, Fumin, Luquan, Lufeng, and Wuding counties, Xuanwei, Qujing, Kunming, Anning and Chuxiong municipalities; south Sichuan Province, Panzhihua municipality. Alternate names: A-Hmao, Big Flowery Miao, Da Hua Bei Miao, Da Hua Miao, Diandongbei Miao, Flowery Miao, Great Flowery Tribe, Hua Miao, Hwa Miao, Northeastern Dian Miao, Northeastern Yunnan Miao, Ta Hwa Miao.  Dialects: Inherently mutually unintelligible with other Miao varieties.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Luopohe

[hml] 61,000 (1995 F. Wang). Central Guizhou east of Guiyang, Weng’an, Guiding, Longli, Kaiyang counties, Fuquan and Kaili municipalities. Alternate names: Lobohe Miao, Luobo River Miao, Luobohe Hmong, Luopohe Hmong, Xi, Xijia Miao, Ximahe Miao.  Dialects: 2 dialects. Not inherently intelligible with other Miao varieties.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Northern Guiyang

[huj] 84,000 (1995 F. Wang). Central Guizhou Province, Jinsha, Qianxi, Xifeng, Kaiyang, Xiuwen, Pingba Guiding counties, west Guiyang municipality suburbs. Alternate names: Northern Guiyang Hmong.  Dialects: Inherently mutually unintelligible with other Miao varieties.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Northern Huishui

[hmi] 70,000 (1995 F. Wang). Central Guizhou Province, Guiyang municipality, Gaopo District; Huishui, Longli and Guiding counties. Alternate names: Northern Huishui Hmong.  Dialects: Inherently mutually unintelligible with other Miao varieties.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Northern Mashan

[hmp] 35,000 (1995 F. Wang). South central Guizhou Province, Changshun, Luodian and Huishui counties. Alternate names: Northern Mashan Hmong.  Dialects: Not inherently intelligible with other Miao varieties.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Northern Qiandong

[hea] 1,250,000 (1995 F. Wang), decreasing. East and south Guizhou Province, Majiang, Danzhai, Leishan, Taijiang, Huangping, Shibing, Jianhe, Zhenyuan, Sansui, Fuquan, Pingba, Zhenning, Xingren, Anlong, Guanling, Zhenfeng and Ziyun counties, Kaili Qingzhen municipalities; northwest Guangxi Province, Longlin County. Alternate names: Black Miao, Central Miao, Chientung Miao, East Guizhou Miao, Gha Ne, Gha Ne Dlai, Heh Miao, Hei Miao, Hmu, Northern East Guizhou Miao, Northern Hmu.  Dialects: Not intelligible with other Miao varieties. Corresponds more or less to Ma’s Central Miao and Purnell’s Eastern Miao. At least 4 dialects (vernaculars). The official standard variety of Qiandong Miao is based on Yanghao, but with some similarities to other varieties.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Qiandong 
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Miao, Small Flowery

[sfm] 84,000 (1995).  Alternate names: Atse, Ghab-Mvb Ghab-Svd, Ghuab-Hmongb Ghuab-Soud, Xiao Hua Miao, Hsiao Hwa Miao.  Dialects: Similar to Large Flowery Miao.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Southern Guiyang

[hmy] 28,000 (1995 F. Wang). South central Guizhou Province, Changshun, Ziyun Zhenning counties, Anshun Municipality. Alternate names: Southern Guiyang Hmong.  Dialects: Not inherently intelligible with other Miao varieties.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Southern Mashan

[hma] 10,000 (1995 F. Wang). South Guizhou Province, Wangmo County. Alternate names: Southern Mashan Hmong.  Dialects: Not inherently intelligible with other Miao varieties.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Southern Qiandong

[hms] 500,000 (1995 F. Wang). All Miao in China: 8,949,116 (2000 census). Southeast Guizhou Province, Sandu, Danzhai, Libo and Rongjiang Congjiang counties; north Guangxi Province, Rongshui and Sanjiang counties. Alternate names: Black Miao, Central Miao, Chientung Miao, Hei Miao, Hmu, Southern East-Guizhou Miao, Southern Hmu.  Dialects: Not intelligible with other Miao varieties. Corresponds more or less to Ma’s Central Miao and Purnell’s Eastern Miao.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Qiandong 
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Miao, Southwestern Guiyang

[hmg] 70,000 (1995 F. Wang). Central Guizhou Province, Pingba, Changshun counties, suburbs of Guiyang, Qingzhen, Anshun municipalities. Alternate names: Southwestern Guiyang Hmong.  Dialects: Not inherently intelligible with other Miao varieties.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Southwestern Huishui

[hmh] 56,000 (1995 F. Wang). Central Guizhou Province, Huishui, Sandu, Changshun counties. Alternate names: Miao, Southwestern Huishui Hmong.  Dialects: Inherently mutually unintelligible with other Miao varieties.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Western Mashan

[hmw] 14,000 (1995 F. Wang). South Guizhou Province, Wangmo, Ziyun counties. Alternate names: Western Mashan Hmong.  Dialects: Not inherently intelligible with other Miao varieties.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Miao, Western Xiangxi

[mmr] 820,000 (1995 F. Wang), decreasing. Northwest Hunan Province, Huadan, Fenghuang, Baojing, Jishou, Guzhang, Longshan, Xinhuang Mayang counties; northeast Guizhou Province, Songtao County, Tongren and southeast Chongqing municipalities; Xiushan and Youyang counties; southwest Hubei Province, Xuan’en County; north Guangxi Province, Nandan County, Hechi municipality. Alternate names: Eastern Miao, Ghao-Xong, Hsianghsi Miao, Huayuan Miao, Meo Do, Northern Miao, Red Meo, Red Miao, West Hunan Miao, Western Ghao-Xong, Western West-Hunan Miao.  Dialects: Not inherently intelligible with other Miao varieties.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Xiangxi 
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Miao, White

[mww] 233,000 in China (2004). All Miao in China: 8,949,116 (2000 census). Population total all countries: 613,400. Ethnic population: 8,949,116. South and southwest Guizhou, northwest Guangxi, southeast and southwest Yunnan. Also in France, Laos, Thailand, United States, Viet Nam. Alternate names: Bai Miao, Banded Arm Hmong, Hmong Daw, Hmong Dleu, Hmong Qua Mpa, Meo Do, Meo Kao, Mong Do, Mong Trang, Pe Miao, Peh Miao, Striped Arm Hmong, Striped Hmong, White Hmong, White Lum, White Meo.  Dialects: Largely intelligible with Hmong Njua [hnj] and Hmong Daw (Mong Leng dialect) but sociolinguistic factors require separate literature for Hmong Daw.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Mili

[ymh] 23,000 (2002). Yunnan Province, Jingdong, Yunxian, Zhenyuan, Xinping counties. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Miqie

[yiq] 30,000 (Bradley 2007), decreasing. Ethnic population: 50,000. Yunnan Province, Wuding (Jincheng, Jiuchang, and Chadian districts), north Fumin, north Lufeng, south Luquan counties, parts of Yongren, Dayao, Yao’an, Nanhua, Jingdong, Zhenyuan, Jinggu, Yimen counties. Alternate names: Micha, Mielang, Minqi.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Moji

[ymi] 2,000 (2008), decreasing. Yunnan Province, south and southwest Wenshan County; west Xichou County, Luchaichong village; possibly east Fumin County. Alternate names: Flathead Phulai, Muji, Phula, Phulawa, Pingtou Phula.  Dialects: Luchaichong. Moji patterns with Proto-Muji subgroup phylogenetically, but the Luchaichong dialect (the most vital dialect) heavily influenced by contact with Khlula and Zokhuo.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Monba, Tawan

[twm] 1,300 in China (2000 census). Less than half monolingual: Young children, older people, some young adults. 600 Southern Cuona, 700 Northern Cuona. Southeast Tibetan Autonomous Region, Shannan Prefecture, Cuona County, Lebu District (Southern Cuona); Linzhi Prefecture, Motuo County, Dexing District, Wenlang village (Northern Cuona). Alternate names: Cona Monba, Cuona Menba, Cuona Monpa, Cuona Monba, Menba, Menpa, Moinba, Momba, Mompa, Monba, Monpa.  Dialects: Northern Cuona, Southern Cuona.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Tibetic, Tibetan, Unclassified 
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Mongolian, Peripheral

[mvf] 3,380,000 in China (1982). 2,500,000 are monolingual. Population includes 299,000 Chakhar, 317,000 Bairin, 1,347,000 Khorain, 593,00 Karachin, 123,000 Ordos, 34,000 Ejine. Inner Mongolia, Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang provinces, Urumchi to Hailar. Also in Mongolia. Alternate names: Inner Mongolian, Menggu, Monggol, Mongol, Southern-Eastern Mongolian.  Dialects: Chahar (Chaha’er, Chakhar, Qahar), Ordos (E’erduosite), Tumut (Tumet), Shilingol (Ujumchin), Ulanchab (Urat, Mingan), Jo-Uda (Bairin, Balin, Naiman, Keshikten), Jostu (Ke’erqin, Kharchin, Kharachin, Kharchin-Tumut, Eastern Tumut), Jirim (Kalaqin, Khorchin, Jalait, Gorlos), Ejine. Largely intelligible with Halh Mongolian [khk], but there are phonological and important loanword differences.  Classification: Altaic, Mongolic, Eastern, Oirat-Khalkha, Khalkha-Buriat, Mongolian Proper 
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Muda

[ymd] 2,000 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, Jinghong County, Nanpianshan District. Dialects: Related to Mpi [mpi].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southern 
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Muji, Northern

[ymx] 9,000 (2008). Yunnan Province, south Mengzi County, west Pingbian County. Alternate names: Bokha, Hlaka Mujima, Phula.  Dialects: Similar to Southern Muji [ymc].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Muji, Qila

[ymq] 1,500 (2008), decreasing. Yunnan Province, south Jinping County. 2 isolated villages. Alternate names: Doka, Mujitsu, Phutsu.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Muji, Southern

[ymc] 26,000 (2008), increasing. Yunnan Province, north Jinping County; some in southwest and east Jinping County, south Mengzi County, southeast Gejiu County. Alternate names: Aga, Khlaka, Lahi, Muzi, Phula, Tjeki, Tshebu, Tshibu.  Dialects: Dazhai, Ma’andi, Tongchang, Yingpan, Jinhe, Gamadi.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Mulam

[mlm] 86,000 (2005 Guangxi Language and Orthography Use Situation). Fewer than 10,000 monolinguals (including women and preschool children). Ethnic population: 210,000 (2000 census). North central Guizhou Province, Luocheng Mulam Autonomous County (90% in Dongmen and Siba communes), adjacent counties, Majiang and Kaili City. Alternate names: Abo, Ayo, Kyam, Molao, Mulao, Mulao Miao, Muliao, Mulou.  Dialects: Similar to Southern Dong [kmc]. Lexical similarity: 65% with Dong (probably Southern Dong).  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Kam-Sui 
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Muya

[mvm] 13,000 (2000 H. Sun). About 2,000 are monolingual. West central Sichuan, Kangbo (Kangding) and Jiulong (Gyaisi) in the Ganzi (Garzê) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, and Simian (Shimian) County in the Ya’an District. Alternate names: Boba, Manyak, Menya, Minyag, Minyak, Miyao, Munya.  Dialects: Eastern Muya, Western Muya. Dialects reportedly not mutually inherently intelligible.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, Qiangic 
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Muzi

[ymz] 10,000 (2008). Yunnan Province, south and east Gejiu County; west Mengzi County, scattered villages. Alternate names: Muji, Mogeha.  Dialects: Similar to Notthern Muji [ymx].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Naluo

[ylo] 40,000. Yunnan, Qiaojia, Wuding, Luquan, Yuanmou, Huize counties. Alternate names: Qiao-Wu Yi, Qiaojia-Wuding Yi.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Northern, Yi, Eastern Yi 
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Namuyi

[nmy] 4,000 (2000 H. Sun). 200 monolinguals, mainly older adults. Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Mianning, Muli, Xichang, Yanyuan counties; southwest Sichuan, Ganzi (Garzê) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Jiulong (Gyaisi) County. Alternate names: Naimuci, Naimuzi.  Dialects: Eastern Namuyi, Western Namuyi. Low intelligibility between dialects, with lexical and phonological differences.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, Qiangic 
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Nanai

[gld] 12 in China (1999 D.Chaoke). Ethnic population: 4,640 in China (2000 census). Northeast corner of Heilongjiang Province, near merge of Heilong, Songhua, and Wusuli rivers, Tongjiang County, Bacha, Jiejinkou villages; Raohe County, Sipai village. Most in the Russian Federation (Asia). Alternate names: Gold, Goldi, Hezhen, Juchen, Nanay, Sushen.  Dialects: Hezhen (Hezhe, Heche), Qileng (Qile’en, Kili, Kilen, Kirin).  Classification: Altaic, Tungusic, Southern, Southeast, Nanaj 
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Nasu

[ywq] 250,000 (2007). Yunnan, Luquan, Wuding, Yongren, Lufeng, Yuanmou, Qujing, Xundian, Huize counties; south Sichuan, Huili County. Alternate names: Black Yi, Dian Dongbei Yi, Hei Yi, Nasu proper, Wu-Lu Yi.  Dialects: Luquan Naso, Wuding Naisu. The Naisu dialect is also called Hong Yi (Red Yi). Degrees of similarity between dialects, and also with Naluo [ylo], needs further investigation.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Northern, Yi, Eastern Yi 
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Nasu, Wumeng

[ywu] 190,000 (2007). West Guizhou and East Yunnan, in Weining, Shuicheng, Hezhang, Nayong, Xuanwei, Huize, and Yiliang counties; Northwest Yunnan Province, Zhaotong, Yongshan, Daguan, Ludian counties. Alternate names: Wusa Yi, Yuan-Mo Yi, Wumeng Yi.  Dialects: Weining Yi, Hezhang Yi, Hen-Ke Yi.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Nasu, Wusa

[yig] 500,000 (2007), decreasing. Ethnic population: 700,000. Guizhou Province, Weining Yi-Hui-Miao Autonomous, Dafang Autonomous, Hezhang, and Pan counties; west Guangxi, Baise District. Alternate names: Eastern Yi.  Dialects: Qian Xi, Bijie, Dafang. Reportedly low intelligibility between dialects.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Naxi

[nbf] 309,000 (2000 census). 100,000 monolinguals. Northwest Yunnan, Lijiang Naxi Autonomous County; scattered in Weixi, Zhongdian, Ninglang, Deqing, Yongsheng, Heqing, Jianchuan, and Lanping counties; Sichuan Province, Yanyuan, Yanbian, and Muli counties; southeast Tibet, a few in Mangkang County. Possibly in Myanmar. Alternate names: Lomi, “Mo-Su” , “Moso” , “Mosso” , Mu, Nahsi, Nakhi, Nasi.  Dialects: Lichiang (Lijiang), Lapao, Lutien. The western dialect is reportedly fairly uniform and considered the standard (from Dayan town in Lijiang County). Eastern has some internal differences, and intelligibility may be low within it.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Naxi 
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Nisi

[yso] 36,000 (2002), decreasing. Southeast Yunnan, Wenshan, Yanshan, Maguan, Funing, Xichou, Malipo, Honghe counties. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Nisu, Eastern

[nos] 75,000 (2004), decreasing. Yunnan, Jianshui, Tonghai, Gejiu, Kaiyuan, Mengzi, Pingbian, Hekou counties. Alternate names: Nisu, Shiping-Jianshui Nisu, Shiping-Jianshui Yi.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Nisu, Northern

[yiv] 160,000, decreasing. Yunnan Province, Eshan, Xinping, Shiping (North), Yimen, Yuxi, Jiangchuan, Shuangbai, Jinning, Chengjiang, Northern Yuanjiang counties. Alternate names: E-Xin Yi.  Dialects: Nasu, Nisu. The Nasu dialect of Northern Nisu is distinct from Nasu language continuum further north. Nasu users comprehend other varieties of Northern Nisu.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Nisu, Southern

[nsd] 210,000 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, Honghe, Yuanyang, Mojiang, Simao, Lüchun (Eastern), Jinping, Pu’er, Shiping (Southern), Yuanjiang (Southeastern) counties. Alternate names: Yuan-Mo Yi.  Dialects: Yuanyang Nisu, Mojiang Nisu. Related to Northern Nisu [yiv], Southwestern Nisu [nsv].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Nisu, Southwestern

[nsv] 15,000 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, Jiangcheng, Simao, Mojiang, Lüchun (western), Pu’er counties. Dialects: Yuanyang Nisu, Mojiang Nisu. Related to Northern Nisu [yiv], Southern Nisu [nsd].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Nung

[nun] 390 in China (1999 H. Sun). Almost no monolinguals. Ethnic population: 500 in China (1999 H. Sun). Yunnan, middle reaches of Nu (Salween) River, Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture, Fugong County border region, 7 hamlets: Mugujia, Hashi, Muleng, Lagagong, Ani, Qia, Lahaigong in Mugujia village, administrative region of Shangpa Township. Alternate names: Anong, Anoong, Anu, Anung, Fuch’ye, Khanung, Khupang, Kiutze, Kwingsang, Kwinp’ang, Lu, Lutze, Lutzu, Nu.  Dialects: Cholo, Gwaza, Miko.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Nungish 
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Nuosu

[iii] 2,000,000 (2000 census), increasing. 60% monolinguals (Jiafa 1994). North Yunnan, south Sichuan, mainly in Greater and Lesser Liangshan mountains. Spoken in over 40 counties. Alternate names: Black Yi, Liangshan Yi, Northern Yi, Nosu Yi, Sichuan Yi.  Dialects: Northern Shypnra, Southern Shypnra, Yynuo, Suondi (Adu).  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Nusu

[nuf] 12,000 (Bradley 2007). 1,000 monolinguals. 2,000 in Northern Nusu, 4,000 in Southern Nusu, and 6,000 in Central Nusu. Yunnan Province, Nujiang Lusu Autonomous Prefecture, south Fugong and northeast Lushui counties. Dialects: Northern Nusu (Wawa-Kongtong), Southern Nusu (Guoke-Puluo), Central Nusu (Zhizhiluo-Laomudeng). Dialects not inherently mutually intelligible.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Oroqen

[orh] 1,200 (2002 L. Whaley). 800 are monolingual. Ethnic population: 8,196 (2000 census). Heilongjiang Province, Hinggan Ling Prefecture, Tahe, Huma, Da, Xunke counties; Heihe Prefecture, Heihe City; Yichun Prefecture, Jiayin County; Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Oroqen and Butha banners of Hulun Buir League. Alternate names: Elunchun, Olunchun, Orochon, Oronchon, Ulunchun.  Dialects: Gankui, Heilongjiang Oroqen. Gankui in Inner Mongolia is the standard dialect.  Classification: Altaic, Tungusic, Northern, Evenki 
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Pa Di

[pdi] 1,000 in China. Population total all countries: 1,300. Yunnan Province, Honghe Hani and Yi prefectures, Hekou and Jinping counties. Also in Viet Nam. Alternate names: Padi.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern 
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Pa-Hng

[pha] 26,800 in China (McConnell 1995). 10,000 monolinguals. Population total all countries: 32,370. Ethnic population: 26,815 in China. Guizhou Province, Liping, Congjiang counties; northeast Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Rongshui, Sanjiang, Longsheng, Rong’an, Lingui counties. Also in Viet Nam. Alternate names: Baheng, Bahengmai, Man Pa Seng, Meo Lai, Pa Hng, Pa Ngng, Pa Then, Paheng, Tóng.  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Pa-hng 
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Palaung, Pale

[pce] 9,000 in China (2000). West Yunnan, Dehong Prefecture, Luxi County, east of Rumai. Alternate names: Bulai, Bulei, Dlang, Ngwe Palaung, Palay, Pale, Pulei, Silver Palaung, Southern Ta’ang.  Dialects: Bulei, Raojin.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Palaung 
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Palaung, Rumai

[rbb] 2,000 in China (1995). Far western Yunnan, Dehong Prefecture, Longchuan, and Ruili counties, on Myanmar border. Alternate names: Gemai, Guangjia, Guangka, Hemai, Humai, Na’ang, Romai, Rumai, Ruomai.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Palaung 
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Palaung, Shwe

[pll] 2,000 in China (1995 SIL). Total De’ang nationality in China 15,462 (1990 census), 17,935 (2000 census). Southwest Yunnan, Lincang Prefecture, Zhenkang County; Baoshan Prefecture, Longyang County. Alternate names: Golden Palaung, Shwe, Ta-Ang Palaung.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Palaung 
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Panang

[pcr] 12,000 (2002). Tibetan Autonomous Region. Alternate names: Banag, Banang, Panags, Panakha, Pananag, Sbanag, Sbranag.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Tibetic, Tibetan, Central 
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Parauk

[prk] 266,000 in China (2000 census). Southwest Yunnan, Lincang Prefecture, Cangyuan Va Autonomous, Shuangjiang Lahu, Blang, Dai Autonomous, Gengma Dai, and Yongde counties; Simao Prefecture, Lancang Lahu Autonomous County; Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Menghai County, Mengman District. Alternate names: Baraog, Baroke, Buliu, Bulu, Burao, Phalok, Praok, Wa.  Dialects: Aishuai, Banhong, Dazhai, Alwa.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Waic, Wa 
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Pela

[bxd] 400 (2000 D. Bradley). Ethnic population: 1,000 (2001 J. Edmondson). Yunnan Province, Dehong Prefecture, Luxi County, Santaishan Township; Yingjiang, Lianghe counties. Maybe also Myanmar. Alternate names: Bela, Bola, Bula, Pala, Polo.  Dialects: Similar to Zaiwa [atb]. Considered by some a Zaiwa dialect.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Northern 
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Phala

[ypa] 12,000 (2007). Yunnan Province, Shiping, Honghe counties, north and south banks of Yuanjiang (Honghe) River; Yuanyang, Jianshui counties, a few isolated villages downriver. Alternate names: Black Phula, Bola, Hei Phula, Khapho, Phula, Phulepho.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Phola

[ypg] 13,000 (2007). Yunnan Province, Yuanjiang, Shiping, Honghe counties, along confluence of Yuanjiang (Honghe) and Xiaohedi rivers. Alternate names: Bola, Flowery Phula, Hua Phula, Phula, Phulepho, Tsha Phula.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Phola, Alo

[ypo]  Yunnan Province, Yuanjiang County, Tuguozhai village. Alternate names: Pula, Bola.  Dialects: Similar to Phola [ypg].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Pholo

[yip] 30,000 (2008), decreasing. Ethnic population: 34,000. Yunnan Province, northeast Yanshan County, southeast Qiubei County; east Yanshan, west Guangnan, northeast Malipo counties, scattered. Alternate names: Black Phula, Flowery Phula, Phu, Phula.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Phowa, Ani

[ypn] 10,000 (2007). Yunnan Province, north central Mengzi County, Xibeile District; south Kaiyuan County, Yangjie District. Alternate names: Flowery Phu, Hua Phu, Laotshipu, Pho, Phula.  Dialects: Most similar to Labo Phowa [ypb].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Phowa, Hlepho

[yhl] 36,000 (2007), decreasing. Ethnic population: 50,000. Yunnan Province, southwest Yanshan, north Mengzi, west Weshan, and north Pingbian counties. Alternate names: Abo, Boren, Bozi, Conehead Phula, Cowtail Phula, Daizhanpho, Digaopho, Flowery Phula, Hua Phula, Jiantou Phula, Minjia, Niuweiba Phula, Paola, Pho, Phula, Sandaohong Phula, Shaoji Phula, Sifter Basket Phula, Thrice Striped Red Phula, Xiuba.  Dialects: Most similar to Labo Phowa [ypb].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Phowa, Labo

[ypb] 17,000 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, central, north-central and southeast Kaiyuan County. Alternate names: Asaheipho, Asahopho, Ekhepho, Labopho, Pho, Phula, White Phu, Zemapho.  Dialects: Most similar to Ani Phowa [ypn].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Phukha

[phh] 5,000 in China (2008). Ethnic population: 7,000. Yunnan Province, southeast Maguan, southwest Malipo counties. Alternate names: Fu Khla, Phu Khla, Phù Lá, Phù Lá Hán.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Phuma

[ypm] 8,000 (2007), increasing. Yunnan Province, east-central Pingbian County. Alternate names: Black Muji, Hei Muji, Muji, Paotlo, Phula, Phuli, Shaoji Phula, Sifter Basket Phula.  Dialects: Related to Bokha [ybk].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Phupa

[ypp] 3,000 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, southwest Mengzi County; southeast corner of Gejiu panhandle. Alternate names: Hlagho, Laghï, Lala, Lamu, Larhwo, La’ou, Lapa, Muzi, Phula, Phupha, Tshebu.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Phupha

[yph] 1,300 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, southwest Gejiu County. 4 villages; Yuangyang County, across Honghe River. 1 village. Alternate names: Phula, Phupho, Tsapho.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Phuza

[ypz] 6,000 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, southwest Mengzi and southeast Gejiu counties. Alternate names: Hei Phu, Phujitsu, Phula, Phu’a.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Pumi, Northern

[pmi] 35,000 (1999). 10,000 monolinguals. 24,000 as Pumi nationality, 30,000 as Tibetan nationality (1994). Southwest Sichuan, Muli, Yanyuan, and Kiulong counties; northwest Yunnan, Ninglang County, Yongning District. Alternate names: Ch’rame, Pimi, Primmi, Pruumi, P’ömi, P’rome, P’umi.  Dialects: Taoba. Northern Pumi has 4 subdialects. Intelligibility with Southern Pumi [pmj] is low. Lexical similarity: between Northern and Southern is 60%, grammatical differences minor.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, Qiangic 
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Pumi, Southern

[pmj] 19,000 (1999). 6,000 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 28,000 (2000). Northwest Yunnan Province, Lanping, Weixi, Yongsheng, and Lijiang counties; Ninglang County, Xinyingpan District. Alternate names: Pimi, Primmi, Pruumi, P’ömi, P’rome, P’umi.  Dialects: Qinghua. Southern Pumi has 4 subdialects. Intelligibility with Northern Pumi is difficult. Lexical similarity: 60% between Northern and Southern.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, Qiangic 
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Qabiao

[laq] Few elderly speakers. Ethnic population: 400. Yunnan Province, Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Malipo County, Tiechang, Matong, Punong, Pucha, and Pufeng towns. Alternate names: Ka Bao, Ka Biao, Kabeo, Laqua, Pu Péo, Pubiao, Pupeo.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Yang-Biao 
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Qiang, Northern

[cng] 57,800 (1999), decreasing. 14,000 Mawo dialect, 14,000 Weigu dialect, 11,000 Luhua dialect, 8000 Cimulin dialect, and 9,000 Yadu dialect. 130,000 total for Northern and Southern Qiang languages, including 80,000 as Qiang nationality and 50,000 as Tibetan nationality (1990 J-O. Svantesson). Ethnic population: 306,072 (2000 census). North central Sichuan Province, Mao, Songpan, Heishui, Beichuan counties. Alternate names: Ch’iang.  Dialects: Mawo, Yadu, Weigu, Cimulin, Luhua.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, Qiangic 
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Qiang, Southern

[qxs] 81,300 (1999 J. Evans), decreasing. No monolinguals. 8,300 Daqishan dialect, 4,100 Taoping dialect, 3,100 Longxi dialect, 14,500 Mianchi dialect, 31,000 Hehu dialect. Around 130,000 total for Northern and Southern Qiang. 80,000 classified as Qiang nationality and 50,000 classified as Tibetan nationality (1990 J-O. Svantesson). North central Sichuan Province, Minjiang River basin between Zhenjiangguan in Songpan County to the north, and Wenchuan and Li counties to the south, as far east as Beichuan County. Alternate names: Ch’iang.  Dialects: Dajishan (Daqishan), Taoping, Longxi, Mianchi, Heihu, Sanlong, Jiaochang. Related to Muya [mvm].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, Qiangic 
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Queyu

[qvy] 7,000 (1995). West Sichuan, Ganzi (Garzê) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Xinlong (Nyagrong), Yajiang (Nyagquka) Litang counties. Alternate names: Choyo, Zhaba.  Dialects: Similar to Zhaba [zhb].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, Qiangic 
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Riang

[ril] 3,000 in China (1995). Southwest Yunnan, Lincang Prefecture, Zhenkang County; Baoshan Prefecture, Longyang County. Alternate names: De’ang, Liang, Liang Palaung, Na’ang, Riang-Lang, Xiaoan’gou, Xiaochanggou, Yang Sek, Yang Wan Kun, Yanglam, Yin.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Riang 
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Russian

[rus] 2,940 in China (Shearer and Sun 2002). Ethnic population: 15,609 (2000 census). North Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi, Karamay (Kelamayi), Changji, Tacheng cities; Yili Prefecture (esp. Yi’ning City); Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, E’erguna Enhe Russian Autonomous District (Hulunbeier banner),China Pictures; Heilongjiang Province, Heihe City. Alternate names: Eluosi, Olossu, Russ, Russki.  Classification: Indo-European, Slavic, East 
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Salar

[slr] 60,000 (2002), decreasing. Under 20,000 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 104,503 (2000 census). Qinghai Province, Xunhua Salar Autonomous, Hualong Hui autonomous counties; Gansu Province, Jishishan Autonomous County; Xinjiang, Yining. Alternate names: Sala.  Dialects: Jiezi, Mengda. Salar is spoken by descendants of an Oghuz-Turkic-speaking subtribe. Has an Oghuz Turkic base, and took on a medieval Chaghatay Turkic stratum through Central Asian contacts and finally acquired a stratum of features from local languages (1989 R. Hahn). Jiezi often seen as standard dialect.  Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Southern 
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Samatao

[ysd] 400 (2007), decreasing. Guandu District, Kunming Municipality, Zijun village. A few elderly speakers in Zhenkang and Yongde. Alternate names: Samadu, Samaduo, Samou.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Samei

[smh] 20,000 (Bradley 2007). Ethnic population: 35,000. Yunnan Province, Guandu District, Kunming City, Ala and surrounding communities (47 villages); west Yiliang County (7 villages). Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Samtao

[stu] 100 in China (1993). Southwest Yunnan, Xishuangbanna Prefecture. Alternate names: Samtau, Samtuan.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Angkuic 
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Sangkong

[sgk] 1,500 (1995 D. Bradley), decreasing. Ethnic population: 2,000. South Yunnan Province, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Jinghong County, Xiaojie (3 villages) and Menglong (1 village) districts. Alternate names: Buxia.  Dialects: Similar to Bisu [bzi] and Phunoi [pho].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southern 
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Sani

[ysn] 100,000 (2007). Southeast Yunnan, Shilin, Yilang, Mile, Luxi, Qiubei counties. Dialects: Northern Sani, Southern Sani.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Sanie

[ysy] 8,000 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, north Anning County, Kunming Municipality, Xishan District; southwest Fumin County. Alternate names: Bai Lolo, Bai Yi, Sanyie, Sa’nguie, Shanie, Shaniepu, White Yi.  Dialects: Similar to Samatao [ysd].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Northern 
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Sarikoli

[srh] 16,000 (2000 G. Erqing). Ethnic population: 20,412 (2000 G. Erqing). Southwest Xinjiang, Taxkorgan (Tashkurghan) area, Sarikol Valley. Alternate names: Salikur, Sarykoly, Tadzik, Tajik, Tajiki.  Dialects: Not intelligible with Shughni [sgh] of Tajikistan and Afghanistan.  Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Eastern, Southeastern, Pamir, Shugni-Yazgulami 
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Shan

[shn]  1 village. Alternate names: Dehong.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Northwest 
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Shangzhai

[jih] 4,100 (2004). North central Sichuan, south Rangthang County, Shangzhai District, Shili, Zongke, and Puxi townships, near confluence of Duke River and its tributary Zhongke River. Alternate names: Western Jiarong.  Dialects: Dayili, Zongke, Puxi. Phonologically Western and Northern are fairly similar and differ greatly from Eastern. Lexical similarity: 75% between Eastern and Northern Jiarong, 60% between Western and Northern Jiarong.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, rGyarong 
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She

[shx] 910 (1999 M. Zongwu). 197 monolinguals. 579 Luofu, 386 Lianhua (McConnell 1995). Ethnic population: 709,592 (1990 census) as official She nationality, including 375,000 in Fujian Province, 171,000 in Zhejiang Province 78,000 in Jiangxi Province, 45,000 in Guizhou Province, and 28,000 in Guangdong. Southeast Guangdong Province. Luofu in Boluo and Zengcheng counties, Lianhua in Haifeng and Huidong counties. More than 10 villages. Alternate names: Huo Nte.  Dialects: Luofu (Eastern She), Lianhua (Western She). Major linguistic differences with Iu Mien [ium]. Most similar to Jiongnai Bunu [pnu]. Dialects inherently intelligible. Classification within Hmong-Mien is in dispute (McConnell 1995:1320).  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Ho Nte 
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Sherpa

[xsr] 800 in China (1994). Tibet. Alternate names: Serwa, Sharpa, Sharpa Bhotia, Xiaerba.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Tibetic, Tibetan, Southern 
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Shixing

[sxg] 1,800 (2000 D. Bradley). 1,200 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 2,000 (2000 D. Bradley). Southwest Sichuan, Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Muli Tibetan Autonomous County. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, Qiangic 
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Sinicized Miao

[hmz] 250,000 (Hattaway 2000). Population total all countries: 252,000. Western Guizhou Province, Dafang, Guanling, Nayong, Pu’an, Puding, Qianxi, Qinglong, Shuicheng, Xingren, Zhenning, Zhijin, and Ziyun counties; southeastern Yunnan Province, Wenshan , Honghe prefectures; northwestern Guangxi Province, Longlin County; Anshun and Xingyi cities. Also in Viet Nam. Alternate names: Hmong Shua.  Dialects: Similar to Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao [cqd], Small Flowery Miao (Gha-Mu) [sfm], Forest Miao (Hmong Rongd) [mww].  Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian 
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Sui

[swi] 200,000 in China (1999 X. Zeng). 100,000 monolinguals. Population total all countries: 200,120. Ethnic population: 406,902 (2000 census). Guangxi and northeast Yunnan; Guizhou: Sandu, and Libo districts; Guangxi: Nandan District. Also in Viet Nam. Alternate names: Ai Sui, Shui, Sui Li, Suipo.  Dialects: Sandong (San Tung), Anyang (Yang’an), Pandong. Dialect differences are minor, although Yunnan is reportedly more different. Sandong is the standard.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Kam-Sui 
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Tai Dam

[blt] 10,000 in China (1995). Jingping County, Yunnan. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Chiang Saeng 
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Tai Dón

[twh] 10,000 in China (1995). Jingping County, Yunnan. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Chiang Saeng 
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Tai Hongjin

[tiz] 85,000 (2000 census). Southeast and north Yunnan Province, Sichuan north of the Yangtze at Huili and Takou. Chuxiong Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Yongren, Wuding and Dayao counties; Kunming Prefecture, Luquan Yi, Miao autonomous counties; Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Maguan County; Honghe Hani and Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Honghe, Yuanyang counties; Yuxi Prefecture, Yuanjiang Hani, Yi, Dai autonomous counties; Honghe Hani and Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Lüchun, Shiping, Jianshui counties. Dialects: Dialects are significantly different and probably not all mutually intelligible. Tai Hongjin dialects have undergone more influence from Chinese and surrounding Ngwi languages (Yi and Hani) than other Yunnan Tai languages, and are only 50%-60% lexically similar to other Tai languages. Tai Hongjin is a subgrouping of scattered non-Buddhist Southwestern Tai language groups, who have some common phonological traits, but many differences as well.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Unclassified 
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Tai Nüa

[tdd] 540,000 in China (Zhou and Luo 2001). Population total all countries: 647,400. Ethnic population: 610,000. South central Yunnan, Dehong Prefecture, southwest of Dali near Lancang (Mekong) River. May be in north Viet Nam. Also in France, Laos, Myanmar, Switzerland, Thailand. Alternate names: Chinese Shan, Chinese Tai, Dai Kong, Dai Na, Dai Nuea, Dehong, Dehong Dai, Tai Dehong, Tai Le, Tai Mao, Tai Neua, Tai Nü, Tai Nue, Tai-Kong, Tai-Le, Yunannese Shan, Yunnan Shant’ou.  Dialects: Dehong, Tai Pong (La, You, Ya, Ka, Tai Ka, Sai), Yongren. Lexical similarity: 29% with Qabiao [laq] and Lachi [lbt], 22% with Gelao [gio].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Northwest 
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Tai Ya

[cuu] 50,000 in China (2000 census). Population total all countries: 50,400. Central and South Yunnan Province, Yuxi Prefecture, Xinping Yi-Dai Autonomous County, Mosha District; Yuanjiang Hani, Yi, Dai autonomous counties; Honghe Hani and Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Yuanyang and Honghe counties. Also in Thailand. Alternate names: Cung, Daiya, Huayao Dai, Multi-colored, Tai Cung, Tai-Chung, Tai-Cung, Waistband Tai, Ya, Yuanxin Hongjin Dai.  Dialects: Tai Ya, Tai Sai (Dai Sai), Tai Kha (Dai Ka), Tai Chung (Dai Zhong, Cung). Dialects mutually intelligible, though speakers of the latter three may understand Tai Ya dialect (the largest) more easily than speakers of Tai Ya understand the other three dialects. Some linguists have analyzed Tai Ya as most similar to Tai Nüa [tdd], others have grouped Tai Ya with other non-Buddhist Southwestern Tai groups. Tai Ya is probably not easily intelligible with other varieties of Tai.  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern 
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Takpa

[tkk]  Tibetan Autonomous Region on the India border. Alternate names: Dakpa, Dwags.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Tibetic, Tibetan, Western, Ladakhi 
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Talu

[yta] 13,600 (2007), decreasing.  Alternate names: Taliu, Tagu, Tazhi.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Tanglang

[ytl]  Northwest Yunnan Province, south Lijiang County, Tai’an District, Hongmai Community. Locals call this area “Tanglangba” or Tanglang Basin. Alternate names: Tholo.  Dialects: Similar to Lisu [lis].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Tatar

[tat] 800 in China (1999 Z. Chen), decreasing. Ethnic population: 4,890 (2000 census). North Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Yining (Ghulja, Kulja), Qvqek, and Ürümqi. Alternate names: Tartar, Tata’er.  Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Western, Uralian 
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T’en

[tct] 15,000 (1999 B. Wenze), decreasing. Ethnic population: 25,000 (2000 D. Bradley). Guizhou Province, east Pingtang County; Dushan County; Huishui, just south of Guiyang. Alternate names: Rau, Then, Yang Hwang, Yanghuang.  Dialects: Hedong, Hexi, Huishui. Similar to Sui [swi], some scholars consider T’en to be a dialect of Sui (Shearer and Sun 2002).  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Kam-Sui 
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Thangmi

[thf] 300 in China (2002). Tibetan Autonomous Region. Alternate names: Dolakha, Thami.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Western Himalayish, Eastern 
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Thopho

[ytp] 200 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, Guangnan County, South-central Zhetu District; northeast Zhulin District. Alternate names: Black Hat Folk, Black Phula, Hei Mao Ren, Phula.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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Tibetan, Amdo

[adx] 810,000 (Wurm et al. 1987). 538,500 Hbrogpa, 97,600 Rongba, 112,800 Rongmahbrogpa, 60,600 Rtahu. Huangnan, Hainan, Haibei, and Guoluo (Golog) Tibetan autonomous prefectures; Qinghai Province, Haixi Mongolian-Tibetan-Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture; Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, southwest Gansu Province, Tianzhu Autonomous County; west and north Sichuan Province, Ganzi, Aba (Ngawa) Tibetan autonomous prefectures. Alternate names: Amdo, Anduo, Ngambo.  Dialects: Hbrogpa, Rongba, Rongmahbrogpa, Rtahu. Central Tibetan [bod] or Khams Tibetan [khg] varieties not intelligible. Dialects may not be mutually intelligible. Lexical similarity: 70% with Central Tibetan and Khams Tibetan.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Tibetic, Tibetan, Northern 
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Tibetan, Central

[bod] 1,070,000 in China (1990 census). 86% monolinguals. 570,000 Dbus, 460,000 Gtsang, 40,000 Mngahris out of 4,593,000 in the official nationality. Population total all countries: 1,277,620. Tibet, Sichuan, Qinghai. Also in Bhutan, India, Nepal, Norway, Switzerland, Taiwan, United States. Alternate names: Bhotia, Dbus, Dbusgtsang, Phoke, Tibetan, U, Wei, Weizang, Zang.  Dialects: Gtsang (Tsang, Lhasa), Dbus, Mngahris (Ngari), Deqing Zang. In the exile community a so-called diaspora Tibetan has developed.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Tibetic, Tibetan, Central 
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Tibetan, Khams

[khg] 1,490,000 (1994). 996,000 Eastern, 135,000 Southern, 158,000 Western, 91,000 Northern, 77,000 Jone, 30,000 Hbrugchu. Northeast Tibet, Changdu (Qamdo) and Naqu (Nagqu) districts; west Sichuan, Ganzi (Garzê) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture; northwest Yunnan Province, Diqing (Dêqên) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture; southwest Qinghai Province, Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture. Alternate names: Kam, Kang, Khamba, Khampa, Khams, Khams Bhotia, Khams-Yal.  Dialects: Eastern Khams, Southern Khams, Western Khams, Northern Khams, Hbrugchu, Jone. Dialects may be separate languages; large differences reported. Lexical similarity: 80% with Dbusgtsang [bod] (Central Tibetan).  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Tibetic, Tibetan, Northern 
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Tinani

[lbf] 450 in China (Voegelin and Voegelin 1977). Western Tibet border. Alternate names: Bhotia of Lahul, Gondla, Lahauli, Lahouli, Lahuli Tinan, Rangloi.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Western Himalayish, Kanauri 
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Tsat

[huq] 3,800 (1999 Y. Zheng). Ethnic population: 5,000 (2000 D. Bradley). South Hainan Prefecture; Yaxian (Sanya) County, Yanglan District, Huixin and Huihui villages. Alternate names: Hainan Cham, Hui, Huihui, Sanya Hui, Utsat, Utset.  Dialects: Most similar to Northern Roglai [rog], but very different. Tsat is structurally changed to be like Chinese.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Chamic, Highlands, Chru-Northern, Northern Cham 
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Tseku

[tsk] 12,600 in China (2000). Population total all countries: 23,790. Tibetan Autonomous Region. Also in Bhutan, Nepal. Alternate names: Tsuku, Tzuku.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Tibetic, Tibetan, Central 
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Tshangla

[tsj] 7,000 in China (2000 census). Majority are monolingual. Ethnic population: 8,923. Southeast Tibetan Autonomous Region, Linzhi Prefecture, Motuo (Medoz, Medog) County, Beibeng, Motuo, Bangxing, and Dexing districts; Dongjiu District, Linzhi (Ngingchi) County. Alternate names: Canglo Monba, Cangluo Menba, Cangluo Monba, Central Monpa, Menba, Monba, Monpa, Motuo Menba, Sangla, Tsangla Monba, Tsanglo.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Himalayish, Tibeto-Kanauri, Tibetic, Bodish, Tshangla 
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Tu

[mjg] 152,000 (1999 K. Li). Very few monolinguals. Ethnic population: 190,000. East Qinghai Province, Huzhu Tu Autonomous County; Gansu Province. Alternate names: Mongor, Mongour, Monguor.  Dialects: Huzhu (Mongghul, Halchighol, Naringhol), Minhe (Mangghuer). Said to be most divergent of all Mongolian languages. Dialects reported not inherently mutually intelligible. Huzhu: 150,000 people, 50,000 speakers; Minhe: 25,000. Dongren Huzhu considered standard. Dialects of Huzhu: Halchi, Karlong (18,000), Naringhol.  Classification: Altaic, Mongolic, Eastern, Mongour 
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Tujia, Northern

[tji] 70,000 (Brassett and Brassett 2005). 100 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 8,028,133. Northwest Hunan, Yingjiang and Yanhe counties, Hubei, Guizhou, Wuling Mt. range. Alternate names: Tuchia, Tudja.  Dialects: Longshan, Baojing. Lexical similarity: 40% with Southern Tujia [tjs].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tujia 
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Tujia, Southern

[tjs] 1,500 (Brassett and Brassett 2005), decreasing. Monolingual speakers are mainly women, children, and older adults. Ethnic population: 8,028,133. Northwest Hunan Province, Luxi County. 3 villages. Alternate names: Tuchia.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 40% with Northern Tujia [tji], but with phonological and grammatical differences.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tujia 
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Tuva

[tyv] 2,400 in China (1999 H. Wu). No monolinguals. Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Altay Prefecture, Burjin, Habahe, Fuyun, and Altay counties. Alternate names: Diba, Kök, Mungak, Tuvin, Tuwa.  Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Northern 
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U

[uuu] 40,000 (2000). Southwest Yunnan Province, Baoshan Municipal Prefecture, Shidian and Changning counties. May be in Myanmar. Alternate names: A’erwa, Awa Blang, P’uman, Puman, Wa, Wu, Wu Blang.  Dialects: Not closely related to Blang [blr] (1990 J-O Svantesson). May be same as Wu dialect of Wa [wbm] in Myanmar and Hu [huo] of China.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Angkuic 
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Uyghur

[uig] 8,400,000 in China (2000 census). Most are monolingual. 4,700,000 Central Uyghur, 1,150,000 Hotan, 25,000 Lop. Population total all countries: 8,788,690. Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Also in Afghanistan, Australia, Germany, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, Tajikistan, Turkey (Asia), United States, Uzbekistan. Alternate names: Uighuir, Uighur, Uiguir, Uigur, Uygur, Weiwuer, Wiga.  Dialects: Central Uyghur, Hotan (Hetian), Lop (Luobu). The Akto Türkmen speak a dialect of Uyghur with 500 different seldom-used words. There are 2,000 in 2 villages, Kösarap and Oytak in Akto County, south of Kashgar, Xinjiang. Dolan is a dialect spoken around the fringes of the Taklimakan Desert in Xinjiang. Chinese linguists recognize 3 dialects. Others have used the following dialect names: Kashgar-Yarkand (Kashi-Shache), Yengi Hissar (Yengisar), Khotan-Kerya (Hotan-Yutian), Charchan (Qarqan, Qiemo), Aksu (Aqsu), Qarashahr (Karaxahar), Kucha (Kuqa), Turfan (Turpan), Kumul (Hami), Ili (Kulja, Yining, Taranchi), Urumqi (Urumchi), Lopnor (Lopnur), Dolan, Akto Türkmen. There are significant dialect differences between China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan.  Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Eastern 
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Uzbek, Northern

[uzn] 5,000 in China (2000 A. Chentgshiliang). Ethnic population: 12,370. North and west Xinjiang; Urumqi, Kashgar, and Yining (Ghulja) cities, especially Ili. Alternate names: Ouzbek, Ozbek, Usbaki, Usbeki.  Dialects: Andizhan, Tashkent, Samarkand, Fergana.  Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Eastern 
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Vietnamese

[vie] 7,200 in China (1999 J. Ouyang). South coast of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous region, on Shanxin, Wanwei, and Wutou peninsulas (the “three peninsulas”), Fangcheng Pan-Nationality Autonomous County; Jiangping region. Alternate names: Annamese, Ching, Gin, Jing, Kinh.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Vietnamese 
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Wa, Vo

[wbm] 40,000 (2000). Many monolinguals. Southwest Yunnan, Lincang Prefecture, Yongde and Zhenkang counties. Alternate names: Awa, K’awa, Kawa, Va, Vo, Wa Proper, Wa Pwi, Wakut.  Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Waic, Wa 
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Wakhi

[wbl] 6,000 in China. Ethnic population: 41,028 in Tajik nationality (2000 census). Xinjiang Ughur Autonomous Region, Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County (especially Daftar); mountains south of Pishan. Alternate names: Khik, Vakhan, Wakhani, Wakhigi.  Dialects: Eastern Wakhi.  Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Eastern, Southeastern, Pamir 
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Waxianghua

[wxa] 300,000 (1995). West Hunan Province, a 6,000 sq km area, Wuling Mountains, including Yuanling, Chunxi, Jishou, Guzhang, and Dayong. Alternate names: Wogang, Xianghua.  Dialects: Classified as Han nationality. It differs greatly from both Southwestern Mandarin (Xinan Guanhua) and Xiang Chinese (Hunanese), but is relatively uniform within itself. Neighboring Han Chinese, Miao, and Tujia people do not understand it. Some view it as a special variety of Chinese, others as a minority language, perhaps related to Miao.  Classification: Unclassified 
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Wutunhua

[wuh] 2,000 (1995). East Qinghai Province, Huangnan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Tongren County, Longwu Township, Upper, Lower Wutun and Jiangchama villages. Alternate names: Wutong, Wutun.  Classification: Mixed language, Chinese-Tibetan-Bonan Mongour Mongolian 
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Xiandao

[xia] 100 (1994). West Yunnan Province, Dehong Dai-Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture, Yingjiang County, Jiemao District, Manmian Township, Xiandao and Meng’e villages. Alternate names: Xiandaohua.  Dialects: Members of Achang nationality speak it; some consider it a dialect of Achang [acn].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Unclassified 
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Xibe

[sjo] 30,000 (2000 J. An). Few monolinguals. Ethnic population: 188,824 (2000 census). Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Qapqal, Huocheng, Gongliu, Xinyuan, Nilka, Tekes and Zhaosu counties; Ili Prefecture, Yining City; Tacheng Prefecture, Tacheng County; Bortala Prefecture, Bole County, Ürümqi City. Alternate names: Sibe, Sibin, Sibo, Xibo.  Dialects: Inherently intelligible with Manchu [mnc].  Classification: Altaic, Tungusic, Southern, Southwest 
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Yerong

[yrn] 380 (2000). West Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Baise Prefecture, Napo County, on the Yunnan Province and Viet Nam border; Longhe District, Rongtun and Gonghe villages; Pohe District, Shanhe, Yong’an and Guoba. Alternate names: Ban Yao, Da Ia, Daban Yao, Eastern Buyang, Guangxi Buyang, Ia Hrong, Iron Yao, Khyung Buyang, Liu Yao, Napo Buyang, Six Yao, Tie Yao, Tu Yao Indigenous Yao, Yalang, Yang Khyung, Yerong Buyang.  Dialects: Yerong is closely related to, but not mutually intelligible with, the 3 Buyang languages. May be most similar to the recently discovered En [enc] of Northern Viet Nam. Lexical similarity: 67% with Langnian Buyang [yln], 63% with E’ma Buyang [yzg], and 46% with Baha Buyang [yha].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Yang-Biao, Buyang, Eastern 
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Yugur, East

[yuy] 3,000 (1999 Junast). Ethnic population: 6,000 (2000 D. Bradley). Northwest Gansu Province, east Sunan Yugur Autonomous County, Kangle, Mati, and Dahe districts. Alternate names: Eastern Yogor, Enger, Shera Yogur, Shira Yugur, Yogor, Yögur, Yugar, Yugu.  Classification: Altaic, Mongolic, Eastern, Mongour 
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Yugur, West

[ybe] 2,600 (1999 J. Zhong). Ethnic population: 6,000 (2000 D. Bradley). Northwest Gansu Province, Sunan Yugur Autonomous County near Zhangye (Kanchow). Alternate names: Sari Yogur, Sarig, Sary-Uighur, Sarygh Uygur, Ya Lu, Yellow Uighur, Yugu, Yuku.  Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Eastern 
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Zaiwa

[atb] 80,000 in China (1999 X. Xu). 20,000 monolinguals. Population total all countries: 110,000. Yunnan Province, Dehong Dai-Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture, Luxi, Ruili, Longchuan, Yingjiang, Bangwa districts. Also in Myanmar. Alternate names: Aci, Aji, Atshi, Atsi, Atsi-Maru, Atzi, Azi, Szi, Tsaiwa, Xiaoshanhua.  Dialects: Longzhun, Tingzhu, Bengwa. Some consider Pela [bxd] (Bola, Polo, Pala), Lashi [lsi] (Leqi) and Maru [mhx] (Langsu, Langwa) to be dialects of Zaiwa. Related to Hpon [hpo], Achang [acn]. Dialects have only minor phonological differences.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Burmish, Northern 
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Zauzou

[zal] 2,100 (Bradley 2007). About 10% monolingual, mainly older adults. Ethnic population: 2,500 (1999 Sun Hongkai). Northwest Yunnan Province, Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture, Lanping County, Tu’e, Biji, Wupijiang, Guoli, Xiaocun and Jiangmo districts; Lushui County, Luzhang, Shuilizhai and Liukuzhen districts and townships. Alternate names: Jaojo, Raorou, Rourou.  Dialects: Bijilan, Wupijiang.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Central 
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Zhaba

[zhb] 7,700 (1995). Southwest Sichuan Province, Ganzi (Garzê) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Yajiang (Nyagquka) County, Zhamai District; Daofu (Dawu) County, Zhaba District; Litang and Xinlong counties. Alternate names: Zaba.  Dialects: Eastern Zhaba, Western Zhaba. Similar to Queyu [qvy].  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangut-Qiang, Qiangic 
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Zhuang

[zha] A macrolanguage.  Population total all countries: 14,935,800. 
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Zhuang, Central Hongshuihe

[zch] 1,080,000 (2007). Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, either side of central stretch of HSH River, including Du’an, Dahua, Mashan, north Shanglin and possibly other border areas such as east Pingguo. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Northern 
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Zhuang, Dai

[zhd] 120,000 in China (2007). About 50% monolingual. Population total all countries: 120,200. Southeast Yunnan Province, Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Wenshan County, Matang, Dehou, Laohuilong, Panzhihua, and Kaihua townships; Yanshan County, Pingyuan Township; Guangnan County, Zhulin Township; Maguan, and Malipo (western edge) counties. Also in Viet Nam. Alternate names: Bu Dai, Kau Ndae, Khaau Daai, Thu Lao, Tu, Tuliao, Tuzu, Wen-Ma Southern Zhuang.  Dialects: Most similar language is Nong Zhuang [zhn]. Quite different from most other Southern Zhuang (Central Tai). Lexical similarity: 70% among Nong, Yang [zyg], Yongnan [zyn], Zuojiang [zzj], and Dai [zhd], 65% with Yongbei Zhuang [zyb].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Central 
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Zhuang, Eastern Hongshuihe

[zeh] 1,200,000 (2007). Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, south of eastern Hongshuihe River and south of Qianjiang River, includes south Shanglin, south Xincheng, south Xingbin, north Guigang, west Guiping and south Wuxuan. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Northern 
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Zhuang, Guibei

[zgb] 1,500,000 (2007). Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region: Longsheng, Sanjiang, Yongfu, Rongan, Rongshui, Luocheng, Huanjiang, Hechi, Nandan, Tian’e, Donglan, Bama. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Northern 
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Zhuang, Guibian

[zgn] 1,000,000 (2007). Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region; Fengshan, Tianlin, Longlin, Xilin, Lingyun, Leyun; Yunnan, Funing, N. Guangnan. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Northern 
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Zhuang, Lianshan

[zln] 33,000 (2007). Guangdong, Lianshan Zhuang, Yao Autonomous prefectures. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Northern 
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Zhuang, Liujiang

[zlj] 1,560,000 (2007). Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region: Liujiang, N. Laibin, Yishan, Liucheng, N. Xincheng. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Northern 
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Zhuang, Liuqian

[zlq] 370,000 (2007). Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, east of Liujiang and north of Qianjiang rivers; includes north Wuxuan, Xiangzhou, Luzhai; possibly Pingle, Yangshuo and Hezhou. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Northern 
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Zhuang, Minz

[zgm] 2,600 (2007). Southeast Yunnan Province, Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Funing County, Langheng District (now part of Tianbeng Township), Sankeshu, Xionggu, Shangmabu, Tianfang, Getao, Gezao, Gecai, Bagan, Na’en, Longnong, Anha villages. Alternate names: Kon Min, Bu Xiong.  Dialects: Most similar language is Nong Zhuang [zhn].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Central 
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Zhuang, Nong

[zhn] 500,000 (2007). Less than 50% monolingual. Ethnic population: 600,000. Southeast Yunnan Province, Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, central and west Guangnan, east Yanshan, north Wenshan, Maguan, Xichou, Malipo counties. A few in Funing and Qiubei counties. Alternate names: Kau Nong, Khaau Nong, Nong hua, Phu Nong, Phu Tei, Yan-Guang Southern Zhuang, Zhuangyu Nanbu fanyan Yan-Guang tuyu.  Dialects: Western Guangnan, Liancheng. Most similar languages: Yang Zhuang [zyg], Tày [tyz], Min Zhuang [zgm]. Some Tày dialects near Viet Nam-Yunnan border reportedly mutually intelligible with Nong Zhuang. Lexical similarity 70% between Nong, Yang [zyg], Yongnan [zyn], Zuojiang [zzj], and Dai [zhd], 65% with Yongbei Zhuang [yzb]. Dialects mutually intelligible, but Nong Zhuang is not mutually intelligible with Dai Zhuang, Min Zhuang, Yang Zhuang or Guibian Zhuang. Lexical similarity 65% with Northern Zhuang [ccx].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Central 
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Zhuang, Qiubei

[zqe] 200,000 (2007). Southeast Yunnan Province, Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Qiubei western edge of Guangnan County; Qujing Municipal Prefecture, Shizong and Luoping counties. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Northern 
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Zhuang, Yang

[zyg] 870,000 in China (2000). Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, most Zhuang populations of Jingxi, Debao, and Napo counties; Yunnan Province, Funing County, scattered in Bo’ai, Xinhua, Zhesang, Dongbo, Guichao, Banlun townships and districts. Also in Viet Nam. Alternate names: De-Jing Vernacular of the Southern Dialect of the Zhuang Language, Dejing Zhuang, Gen Yang, Jingxi Zhuang, Nung Giang, Tianbao, Tuhua, Yangyu, Zhuangyu Nanbu fangyan Dejing tuyu.  Dialects: Yang (Yangyu, Tuhua), Tianbao (Tianpao, Dianbao), Fouh (Fu), Cuengh (Zong), Sengh (Sheng), Caj coux (Zouzhou, Jiazhou). Most similar languages are Nong Zhuang [zhn], Zuojiang Zhuang [zzj], Yongnan Zhuang [zyn], and other Nung languages of Viet Nam. Lexical similarity: 70% between Nong Zhuang [zhn], Yang [zyg], Yongnan [zyn], Zuojiang, and Dai [zhd], 65% with Northern Zhuang [ccx].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Central 
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Zhuang, Yongbei

[zyb] 1,980,000 (2007). Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, N. Yongning, Hengxian, Bingyang, Wuming, Pingguo. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Northern 
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Zhuang, Yongnan

[zyn] 1,800,000 in China (2000 J. Edmondson). About 50% monolingual. Population total all countries: 1,810,000. South Guangxi, south Yongning, Longan, Fusui, Shangsi, Qinzhou and Fangcheng counties; some in Jingxi County; Yunnan, Funing County. Also in Viet Nam. Alternate names: Bou Rau, Long An, Long’an, Nung An, Southern Zhuang, Yongnan Vernacular of the Southern Dialect of the Zhuang Language, Zhuangyu nanbu fangyan Yongnan tuyu.  Dialects: Most similar languages are Zuojiang Zhuang [zzj] (Nung Chao), Yongbei Zhuang [zyb], Yang Zhuang [zyg] (Nung Giang), and other Nung languages of Viet Nam. Lexical similarity: 70% between Nong [zhn], Yang [zyg], Yongnan [zyn], Zuojiang [zzj], and Dai [zhd], 65% with Northern Zhuang [ccx].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Central 
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Zhuang, Youjiang

[zyj] 870,000 (2007). Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Tiandong, Tianyang, Baise. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Northern 
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Zhuang, Zuojiang

[zzj] 1,500,000 in China (2000 census). Population total all countries: 1,840,000. Southwest Guangxi Province, Tiandeng, Daxin, Chongzuo, Ningming, Longzhou and Pingxiang Jingxi counties; Yunnan Province, Funing County, a few villages. Also in Viet Nam. Alternate names: Longzhou, Longyin, Ken Tho, Pho Thai, Pu Tho, Southern Zhuang, Zhuangyu nanbu fangyan Zuojiang tuyu.  Dialects: Most similar languages are Yang Zhuang [zyg], Yongnan Zhuang [zyn], Nong Zhuang [zhn], and other Nung languages of Viet Nam. Lexical similarity: 70% between Nong [zhn], Yang [zyg], Yongnan, Zuojiang [zzj], and Dai [zhd], 65% with Yongbei Zhuang [ccx].  Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Central 
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Zokhuo

[yzk] 13,000 (2007), decreasing. Yunnan Province, southeast Wenshan, south Yanshan counties. Alternate names: Cowtail Phula, Nimitso, Niuweiba Phula, Phula, Ruoke, Tshokha, Zekhe, Zuoke.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmic, Ngwi, Southeastern 
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This web edition of the Ethnologue contains all the content of the print edition and may be cited as:
Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com/.

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